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Cat dissection is biology laboratory.

Cat dissected, cat dissecting, science cat, class, lecture

Cat cut open

Cat, Science,

Pig dissection is biology laboratory.

pig dissected, pig dissecting, science pig, class, lecture

pig cut open

pig, Science,

फेटल pig

Fetal Pig
Anterior – head
Dorsal – back
Ventral – belly
Median – a plane passing though the middle (right and left)
Posterior – hind end
Distal -
Proximal –

All visible without dissection –
Eyes, Ears, Nose, External Nares, External Ear, Wrist, Digit (fingers), Anterior wall of body (middle belly), elbow, umbilical cord, knee, Posterior Wall of body cavity, Ankle, Anus, Tail,

Mouth - 3 Pairs of Glands – SALIVARY, PARTOID, SUBMAXILLARY, SUBLINGUAL - Produce AMYLASE

Hard Plate – bone covered with mucous membrane
Soft Palate- continuation of soft tissue covering the hard plate
Pharynx – end of oral cavity, base of tounge, to the STOMACH
Trachea – WIND PIPE

Alimentary Canal..(aka Digestive system) –

Mesenteries – suspend and support internal organs in the body cavity

Gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver, bile travels via a duct to small intestine

Stomach – under the liver,
Gastric glands in the stomach secrete – PEPSINOGEN, HYDROCHLORIC ACID, AND RENNIN (food is now called CHYME)

Small Intestine – DUODENUM (1st part) JEJUNUM (2nd part) ILEUM (3rd part)
Contain VILLI, covered with MUCOSA
Two types of cells – GOBLET CELLS (secrete mucus), COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS (absorption)

Pancreas – secretes several enzymes that digest carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid, (found btw curve of the stomach and duodenum)

Skin – 3 layers epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
In terms of chemical composition, the skin is about 70% water, 25% protein and 2% lipids.

Endocrine System

Endocrine System – all organs that tissues that produce hormones
Endocrine / Exocrine Glands

Hormone – chemical that is secreted into extracelluar fluid and carried by the blood
Act as a distance from the source
Only target with a receptor

Paracrine Regulators – DO NO TRAVEL IN BLOOD, allows cells of organs to related to each other

Pheromones – chemical released into the air (environment) to communicate among people

Neurohormones – i.e. norepinephrine – heart, liver, blood vessels during stress

Directly or Indirectly – hormones are released by the nervous system


Classes of Hormones
1. Peptides and Proteins – glycoproteins
2. Amino Acid Derivatives - TYROSINE
a. Catecholamines
b. Thyroid Hormones (tyrosine, T3, and T4, trioidothyronine)
c. Melatonin
i. Epinephrine and norepinhrine
3. Steroids
a. Sex steroids
b. Corticosteroids

EITHER Hormones are
1. Lipophilic – fat-soluble, NO POLAR
a. Steroids, thyroid hormones (tyrosine, and iodine)
b. Intra – cellular receptors
c. Derived from Cholesterol
d. Retinoids / VITAMIN A
2. Hydrophilic- water loving, POLAR

Endocrine Action – controls physiology with chemical signals from one part of the body to another, target cell undergoes a biological response.

Endocrine – born via bloodstream
Paracrine – close to local environment
Autocrine – acting on secreting cell
Neurocrine – neural cells that release chemical signals into bloodstream


Hypothalamus – releasing hormones
Tropic (stimulating) hormones – from pituitary to act on another endocrine gland
Non Tropic Hormones – from an endocrine gland to target cells

All cells respond to multiple hormones, hormones via receptors, receptors either at cell surface or intracellular

Paracrine Regulators – occurs in most organs,

1. Growth Factors – promote growth and cell division
a. Epidermal growth factor – skin
b. Nerve – nerve
c. Insulin-like growth factors – BONE
d. Cytokines – Immune System

2. Endothelium – rich source of paracrine regulators
a. Nitric Oxide (NO)
b. Endothelin – vasoconstriction
c. Bradykinin – vasodilation

3. Prostaglandins -diverse group of fatty acids that are produced almost in all organs
a. Regulates – smooth muscle, blood vessels, dilation,
b. NONSTEROIDAL ANTI INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
c. Immune system
d. Reproductive
e. Digestive
f. Circulatory
g. Urinary
h. Respiration

Receptor Kinases – for some peptide hormones ( like insulin) the receptor itself is a kinase (enzyme)
Other peptide hormones (like growth hormones) the receptor is NOT A KINASE, but rather is activates INTRACELLULAR Kinases

Hydrophilic Hormones- linked to second messenger protein called G PROTEINS (increase the second messenger molecules)
Second Messenger Stystems – many cAMP, DAG, IP3 ,

Lipophlic Hormones – pass thought the target cell’s plasma membrane and binds to intracellular receptor proteins, then binds to parts of the DNA, activates genes and regulates target cells





Peptides and Glycoproteins – too large to enter cell membrane (non, epe)
Binds to receptor located on the outer surface of the plasma membrane

Major Endocrine Glands –
a. Hypothalamus g. Adrenal Medulla
b. Anterior Pituitary h. Adrenal Cortex
c. Posterior Pituitary i. Pancreas
d. Pineal j. Ovaries
e. Thyroid k. Testes
f. Parathyroids l. Placenta



Pituitary Gland (aka hypophysis) – hangs from the hypothalamus
a. Anterior Pituitary – glandular, TROPIC HORMONES or TROPINS
a. Peptide Hormones, Protein Hormones , Glycoprotein hormones
i. Produces GROWTH HORMONES -muscles and bones
ii. OTHER??????
iii. Direct or indirect
iv. Releasing hormomes and inhibiting hormones,
v. HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSIAL PORTAL SYTSEM
vi. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK or FEEDBACK INHIBITION
vii. Dwarfism, gigantism
b. Posterior Pituitary – fiberous, comes from brain, directly connected to hypothalamus by tract of axons
i. Stores and releases two hormones that are produced by cell bodies in the hypothalamus
ii. NEURENDOCRINE RELEX
iii. Anitdiuretic hormones (ADH) – urine production
iv. Oxytocin- like ADH – 9 amino acids – reproductive behavior




Thyroid – behind the Adam’s apple (front of neck), promote growth in kids, maturation of central nerous system, binds to nuclear receptors, regulated carbs and lipid breakdown,
THYROID HORMONES
a. THYROXINE – set basal metabolic rate, HIGH AND LOW –HYPO-HYPER
b. Triiodothryonine
c. Calcitonin
a. A peptide hormone
b. Helps with the uptake of CALCIUM IONS INTO BONES



Parathroid Gland – 4 small glands attached to thyroid
Produce–PARATHYOID HORONE (PTH) because of FALLING CA2+ in blood
Activation of Vitamin D
PTH – sunlight VITAMIN D
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

Adrenal Gland –above the kidneys,
INNER –Adrenal Medulla
SECRETES EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE (help!!! alarm cells)

OUTER – Adrenal Cortex
Corticosteriods- hormones from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) reabsord Na and excrete K

Anterior pituitary – with hormone ACTH


Pancreas – next to stomach, connected to the duodenum of the small intestine
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS – SCATTERED CLUSTERS OF CELLS THROUGHOUT THE PANCREAS
ISLETS – B cells of islet secrete INSULIN (lowers glucose)
A cells of islet secrete GLUCAGON (raised glucose)
Promotes the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and fat in adipose

Heart

Circulatory System

Pulmonary Arteries – transport blood to lungs
Pulmonary Veins – transport oxygenated blood to heart
Aortic arch and trunk – main arteries from the heart
Common carotid artery – carries blood to brain
Renal vein and artery – connected to kidneys
Mesenteric Veins – connects to intestines

Arteries – away from heart ( A – AWAY)
Views – back to heart (deoxygenized)

Pulmonary circulation – move btw heart and lungs
Systemic circulation – moves blood btw heart and rest of the body

The Heart

Aorta – major artery of the systematic circulation, carries oxygen rich blood from the LEFT ventricle to all parts of the body

Coronary Arteries – supply heart itself

Superior Vena Cava – drains UPPER body
Inferior Vena Cava – drains LOWER body

Atrium – 2 parts (causes no blood to mix)
Right – deoxygenated blood from systematic circulation
Left – oxygenated blood from the lungs


Heart Values (2 pairs)
1. ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV value)
a. Guards the openings btw atria and ventricles
i. Right side - TRICUSPID VALUE
ii. Left side – BICUSPID,(aka) MITRAL VALVE
2. SEMILUNAR VALUES – out of the artery system
a. Right – PULMONARY VALUE
b. Left – AORTIC VALUE

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Diastole – relaxing state
Systole – slight delayed relaxing state (contracted)
BLOOD PRESSURE (sphygmomanometer) – SYSTOLIC / DIASTOLIC ratio

Pulmonary Arteries – deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the R and L lungs
Pulmonary Veins – return rich oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

Contraction of the Heart

Stimulated by membrane depolarization
Caused by SA NODE (sinoatrial node)***most important autorthymic fibers**

Autorthymic fibers – SA NODE ( sinoartial node) located in the right atrium, acts as the PACEMAKER for the rest of the heart, SPONTANEOUS ACTION POTENTIALS faster than other cells, WITHOUT NEURAL ACTIVATION

ATRIOVENTRICULAR – AV NODE, depolarization travels quickly over both ventriles by a network of fibers called the ATRIOVENTRICULAR bundle, aka (BUNDLE OF HIS)---information then relayed to PURKINJE FIBERS

PURKINJE FIBERS – directly stimulate the myocardial cells of the left and right ventricles causing the contraction

Blood Vessels

Arterioles – finest, microscopic branches of the arterial tree

Capillaries – blood from arterioles
Venules – blood is collected which leads to large vessesls *VEINS (back to heart)

Arteries & Veins – MADE UP OF:
**Endothemlium, Elastic Fibers, Smooth Muscle, Connective Tissue**

Capillaries – MADE UP OF:
One layer of endothemlium – allows rapid exchange of gases and metabolites btw blood and body cells

Arteries and arterioles- MADE UP OF:
Smooth muscle layer resulting in VASOCONSTRICTION, which increases resistance and decreases blood flow (hypertension and blood pressure)

***Vasoconstriction – contraction of smooth muscle layer, increased resistance and decrease flow
***Vasodilation – relaxing smooth muscle layer – decreasing resistance and increasing flow








Veins and Vensules – MADE UP OF:
Thinnest layer of smooth muscle (smoother muscle than arteries), work with skeletal muscles, ONE WAY contraction called VENOUS VALVES

Venous valves – moves blood one way

Lymphtatic System MADE UP OF:
Lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lympth nodes, and lymphatic organs

Lymph – one way values, drains into subclavian veins

Lymph Nodes – contain GERMINAL CENTER (lymphocyte activation)

Heart Diseases

Heart Attack – MYOCARDIAL INFRACTION, lack of blood to heart, #1
Atherosclerosis – fatty material in the arteries
Arteriosclerosis – artery hard due to calcium deposition
Athersclerotic Lesions – many issues!!

Angina Pectoris – CHEST PAIN

Stroke – interference with blood supply to BRAIN

Blood Pressure / Flow

AUTONOMIC NERVES SYSTEM
Medulla Oblongata – controls Heart Rate
Norepinephrine - SYMPATHETIC neurons, **increase heart rate
Acetylcholine – PARASYMPATHERTIC neurons, **decrease heart rate

Baroreceptor Reflex – NEGATIVE feed back loop that controls response to changes in blood pressure , detect change in arterial blood pressure
??????????

Blood Volume is regulated by 4 HORMONES (Blood pressure goes with blood volume)
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONES (ADH)
ALDOSTERONE
ATRIAL NATRIURETIC HORMONE
NITRIC OXIDE (NO)

Cardiac Output – volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per min

BP=CO x R
Blood pressure = (cardiac output)(resistance to blood flow)
Blood

Connective tissue, contains plasma, formed elements

Functions –
Transportation - materials (vitamins)
Regulation – body functions (urine)
Protection – injury (white blood cells, protects)

Plasma – made up of 92% WATER…also contains….

1. Nuterients, wastes, hormones
2. Ions
3. Proteins
a. Albumin- (alpha and beta globulins)
b. Fibrinogen -(if removed, called SERUM)
4. Red blood cells – ERYTHROCYTES (about 5 millon per MCL)
a. Hematocrit –fraction of the total blood volume occupied by red blood cells
5. Hemoglobin – pigment that binds and transport oxygen
6. White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
a. Less than 1% of blood
i. Larger than erythrocytes
ii. Can migrate out of capillaries
iii. GRANULAR – neutrophils, eosinophils, and baso phils
iv. ANGRANULAR – monocytes and lumphocytes

7. Platelets – pinch off from larger cells in bone marrow, blood clots


**ALL the formed elements of blood comes from PLURIPTENT STEM CELLS**

HEMOGLOBIN -
Effected by pH and temp (BOHR SHIFT)
Causes H+ bind to hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha helix and 2 B)
HEME – central iron atom that can bind to O2
OXYHEMOGLOBIN – loaded with O2, some molecules lose O2 causing DEOXYHEMGLOBIN

8% - of CO2 is dissolved in plasma
20% - bound to hemoglobin
72% - diffuse into red blood cells
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE (CO2 & H20= forms H2CO3)



Respiration

*works with the cardiovascular system to exchange gases btw the air and blood (external respiration) and btw blood tissue and fluid (internal respiration) * cellular respiration is the final destination where ATP is produced.

Fick’s law of diffusion – rate of diffusion btw two regions

R=DA(PIE)P / d

Gas Exchange – driven by differences in partial pressures GRADIENTS OF O2 AND CO2, ventilation perfusion mismatch

ALVEOLI – sites of gas exchange – surrounded by lots of capillaries, MILLIONS,

AIR –
1. Larynx – inhaled air passes through first then…Glottis, and trachea
2. Right and Left BRONCHI
3. BRONCHILOES – surround by capillary network

Tidal Volume – at rest
Vital capacity – max air expired
Hypoventilation – lack of breathing, HIGH PCO2 (partial pressure of co2)
Hyperventialation – excess breathing, LOW PCO2


Lungs- MEDULLA OBLONGATA **control center**
THORACIC CAVITY
Branched tubular passage, 2 way
Each covered with VISCERAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE
PARIETAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE –lungs INNER wall lined
PLEURAL CAVITY – SPACE BTW MEMBRANES
MEDULLA OBLONGATA – controls breathing
Neurons stop producing impulses , relaxed exhalation occure

NEURONS ARE SENSITIVE TO PARTIAL CHANGE IN CO2
More CO2, increases CARBONIC ACID, lowing pH
Chemosensitive Neurons
AROTIC
CAROTID BODIES

During inhalations two muscles contact
Intercostal Muscles- expand the rib cage
Diaphram- expands volume of thorax and lungs (NEGATIVE PRESSURE)

Elastic Tension- caused by breathing – Thorax , Lungs


EXPIRATION
Exhale
PASSIVE
Can become active
Uses internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
ELASTIC RECOIL
Alveoli stretch, STRETCH RECEPTORS than inhibit respiratory center

Air goes downward because of gravity
Partial Pressure????


INSPIRATION
Inhale
ACTIVE
Medulla Oblongata – causes rib cage to rise and diaphragm to lower, expansion
Negative Pressure – aka parial vacuum in alveoli causes air to come in
Increases CO+ and H+ in blood

ALVEOLAR MEMBERAN
SURFACTANT & WATER LAYER
Simple Squamous epithelium
Basement membrane of wall ??
Interstitial Space
Capillary Wall – simple SE
Basement membrane of cap wall

Pulmonary Ventilation – BREATHING, in and out of lungs, nasal breathing (cleans), PLEURAL SACS suspend the lungs from the thorax and contain fluid to prevent friction against thoracic cage , controlled by brain stem, sends impulses, CHEMORECEPORERS,

Pulmonary Diffusion – Oxygen rate a which it diffuses from alveoli into blood **OXYGEN DIFFUSION CAPACITY**
Trained – athletes, male, female?
**CARBON DIOXIDE’S MEMBRANE IS 20 TIMES GREATER THAN THAT OF OXYGEN, C02 DIFFUSES MORE QUICKLY**

GOAL OF RESPIRATION – maintain blood, tissue gases, pH to normal levels

CNS

SESORY RECEPTORS – DETECTS STIMULUS
MOTOR EFFECTORS – RESPOND STIMULUS

NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS MAKE UP NERVOUS SYSTEM

Sensory Neurons – afferent – carries to CNS
Motor Neurons – Efferent - from impulses to CNS to muscles and glands
Interneurons – Association – reflexes, learning and memory

Glial Cells – NOT involved in signal processing
8 roles
1. static support of neurons
2. insulation of nerve cell – OLIGODENDROCYTES – SCHWANN
3. removal of debribs after injury of the cell dies
4. take up of chemical transmitter
5. migration and growth of axon development
6. PRE-SYNAPTIC TERMINAL
7. blood brain barriers – ASTROCYTES
8. growth hormones and food for nerve cell

OLIGODENDROCYTES(CNS) – SCHWANN (PNS) – Myelsin Sheaths

Nerve Cells – also called neurons
Cell Body – soma – metabolic center
Dendrites – imput from other neurons
Axons – ONLY OUT PUT – output = action potential = transient. Action potential is triggered at the axon HILLOCK and travels 1 – 100 ms-1
Pre-Synaptic terminals – release chemical transmitter

NEURONS –
Cell Body , Axons, supporting cells ( neuroglia ) , Oligodendrites (CNS)
Dendrties , Schwann Cells (PNS) myelinated , Nodes of Ranvier

Axons – away from cell body
Smooth surface
Only 1 axon per cell
NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES
MYELIN
Branches further for the cell body

Dendrites – to cell body
Rough Surface (dendritic spines)
Many dendrites per cell
RIBOSOMES
NO MYELIN NO MYELIN NO MYELIN
Branch near cell body

Basic Info

IONS – CHARGED PARTICLES
ANIONS – ------- (NEGATIVE PARTICLES) ---------
CATIONS - ++++ (POSITIVE PARTICLES) ++++++

Ionic movement is caused by
1. Electrostatic Forces (+ attracts, same charge repel)
2. Concentration Forces (diffusion – movement of ions) and (osmosis)
3. Hydrostatics Forces – gravity forces upon osmosis

Permeability
1. Neuronal Membranes
2. Hydrophobic Lipid Bi-Layer
3. Gated Ion Channels
4. Non-gated Ion Channels



Resting membrane Potential

One positive pole – side exposed to extra-cellar fluid
One Negative pole –side exposed to cytoplasm

NOT Being stimulated – resting membrane potential (avg testing of -70(mV)
****Inside of cell is positively charged because of Sodium-potassium pump and Ion leakage channels ***

Resting membrane Potential

Sodium-potassium pump – every 3 Na+ (sodium ions) pumped out brings in 2 potassium ions (K+) – concentration gradient = high K+, low Na+ inside the cell and High Na+ and low K+ concentrations outside the cell
Ion leakage channels – leaks more K+ than Na+

-70 – 30 --------RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL

Graded Potentials
The response to stimuli
Dendrites and cell body
Different gradations
Decremental Conduction - the further they must travel the weaker they become
EXCITATORY OR INHIBITORY


Synaptic Integration
Spatial Summation – many dendrites produce EPSPs
EPSPs - excitatory postsynaptic potential

Temporal Summation


Structure of Synapses

Intercellular junctions
Synaptic Cleft –
Receiving cell – POST SYNAPTIC

Presnaptic axon – contain neurotransmitters
Diffuse rapidly to the other side of the cleft, bind to the receptor proteins in the membrane of the POSTsynaptic cell

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine – neuron and skeletal muscle
Glumate – MAJOR EXCITATORY in CNS
Glyine – Inhibition & GABA
Dopamine – BRAIN, body movement (parkinson’s)
Norepinephrine – brain and automatic neurons
Serotonin – sleep regulation

Addiction

Cell decrease the number of receptors because of an abundance of nuerotranmitters

Vertebrate Brains

Hindbrain - RHOMBENCEPHALON
Midbrain - MESENCEPHALON
Forebrain – PROSENCEPHALON


Forebrain –
Basal Ganglia
Thalamus
Hypothalamus







Cerebral Cortex – outer layer of the CEREBRUM a lot of neural activity of the cerebellum
Contains 10% of brains neurons
MOTER< SENSORY< ASSOCIATIVE


Cerebrum – RIGHT AND LEFT
Left cerebral hemishphere – connected to corpus callosum
Highly convoluted surface (increases surface area)
3 regions



Cerbrial Cortex
Primary Motor Cortex
Primary Somatosensory cortex
Association Cortex


Nerves – bundles of axons bound by connective tissue

Ganglia – AGGREGATES of neuron cell bodies

PNS
Sensory – DORSAL ROOT
Motor- axons leave from ventral surface and from VENTRAL ROOT of spinal

Automatic Nervous System
Parasympathetic divisions & SYMPATHETIC & MEDULLA OBLONGATA
2 neurons
Preganglionic Neuron – smooth or cardiac muscle or glands
Postgangkionic – exits the ganglion and regulates visceral effectors