Benzene (C6H6) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and liquid water. What is the heat released when 49.04 grams of benzene is combusted?

Benzene (C6H6) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and liquid water. What is the heat released when 49.04 grams of benzene is combusted? The standard enthalpy of formation of benzene is 49.04 kJ/mol

-3268 kJ 1000 J 1 ev 1 amu 1.66054 x 10-27 1000 g
mol 1 kJ 1.60218 x 10-19 J 931.5 x 106 J 1 amu 1 kJ

= -1.14 x 10-28 grams

C A Vocab

Oviparous- animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother

Viviparous- producing living young instead of eggs from within the body in the manner of nearly all mammals, many reptiles, and a few fishes

Ovoviviparous- producing eggs that develop within the maternal body and hatch within or immediately after extrusion from the parent

Ontogeny – changes in organism from zygote to death, although often focused on events from zygote to maturity.

Cleavage – a rapid series of cell divisions that follows fertilization and produces a multi-cellular blastula.

Blastocoel- the cavity of a blastula

Neurulation- an early vertebrate embryo which follows the gastrula and in which nervous tissue begins to differentiate and the basic pattern of the vertebrate begins to emerge

Trophoblast- the outer cellular layer of the mammalian blastocyst

Inner cell mass- the portion of the blastocyst of a mammalian embryo that is destined to become the embryo proper

Blastocyst- the mammalian blastula

Neural crest cells- migrate and ultimately differentiate into a wide variety of adult structures. The migrations begin cranially and gradually extend caudally. They are determined by both intrinsic properties of the neural crest cells and the features of the external environment encountered by the migrating cells - extracellular matrices and substrates.

Gastrula- an early metazoan embryo in which the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are established either by invagination of the blastula (as in fish and amphibians) to form a multilayered cellular cup with a blastopore opening into the archenteron or (as in reptiles, birds, and mammals) by differentiation of the upper layer of the blastodisc into the ectoderm and the lower layer into the endoderm and by the inward migration of cells through the primitive streak to form the mesoderm

Gastrocoele- ? rib-shaped dermal bones located in the abdominal region

Archenteron- the cavity of the gastrula of an embryo forming a primitive gut—called also gastrocoel

Chorion- the highly vascular outer embryonic membrane that is associated with the allantois in the formation of the placenta

Somites- ?


Allantois- a vascular fetal membrane of reptiles, birds, or mammals that is formed as a pouch from the hindgut and that in placental mammals is intimately associated with the chorion in formation of the placenta

Yolk Sac- a membranous sac of most vertebrates that is attached to an embryo and encloses the yolk, that is continuous in most forms including humans through the omphalomesenteric duct with the intestinal cavity of the embryo, that is abundantly supplied with blood vessels which transport nutritive yolk products to the developing embryo, and that in placental mammals is nearly vestigial and functions chiefly prior to the formation of the placenta

Blastopore- the opening into the primitive gut formed at gastrulation

Amnion- a saclike membrance that holds the develipoing embryo in a compartment of water

Coelom- the fluid filled body cavity formed within the mesoderm
transverse septum-
cleidoic egg- enclosed in a relatively impervious shell which reduces free exchange with the environment

Diaphragm- a body partition of muscle and connective tissue ; specifically : the partition separating the chest and abdominal cavities in mammals

Organogenesis- the origin and development of bodily organs

Holoblastic cleavage – early mitotic planes pass entirely through the cleaving embryo

Discoidal cleavage – early mitotic divisions restricted to the animal pole

Meroblastic- characterized by or being incomplete cleavage as a result of the presence of an impeding mass of yolk material (as in the eggs of birds)

Microlecithal- pertaining to eggs that contain small quantities of stored yolk

Mesolecithal- ?

Macrolecithal- ?




Epidermis – the skin layer over the dermis that is derived from ectoderm
Example: outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelium

Dermis - inner mesodermic layer of the skin, vascular
Example:

Sebaceous glands- any of the small sacculated glands lodged in the substance of the derma, usually opening into the hair follicles, and secreting an oily or greasy material composed in great part of fat which softens and lubricates the hair and skin

Sweat glands- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft

mammary- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft

hair - a slender threadlike outgrowth of the epidermis of an anima

nails- are made of keratin

Melanocytes - an epidermal cell that produces melanin

keratin –
Example: hair and nails

squamous epithelium- scale-like cells

stratum basale feathers –

claws-

Chromatophores- a pigment-bearing cell
Example: higher levels darker skin, lower levels whiter skin

Photophores- light-emitting organ which appears as luminous spots on various marine animals, including fish and cephalopods
Example: Firefly Squid, Pachystomias

Ectotherm- a cold-blooded animal

Endotherm- a warm-blooded animal

Poikilotherm- an organism (as a frog) with a variable body temperature that is usually slightly higher than the temperature of its environment : a cold-blooded organism—called also heterotherm


Horns-

Epidermal scales – scales are tough, shed
Example: reptiles, and exposed skin in birds

Ctenoid scales- toothed outer edge, and are usually found on more bony fish
Example: spiny fin rays, bass and the angel fish

Placoid scales- are found on cartilaginous fish
Example: sharks

Cycloid scales-
Example: flatfishes (flounders, fluke, soles)

Mucus glands-

Axial Skeleton - the skeleton of the trunk and head
appendicular skeleton- consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the limb

Neurocranium- the portion of the skull that encloses and protects the brain

Splanchnocranium- the portion of the skull that arises from the first three branchial arches and forms the supporting structure of the jaws

Dermatocranium- Bony parts of the skull derived from ossifications in the dermis of the skin

Hyaline cartilage- cartilage consisting of cells embedded in an apparently homogeneous matrix, present in joints and respiratory passages, and forming most of the fetal skeleton

Calcified cartilage- flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle

Fibrocartilage- cartilage in which the matrix except immediately about the cells is largely composed of fibers like those of ordinary connective tissue

Diaphysis- the shaft of a long bone

Epiphyses- an end of a long bone
Metaphysic- the transitional zone at which the diaphysis and epiphysis of a bone come together

Endochondral bone -relating to, formed by, or being ossification that takes place from centers arising in cartilage and involves deposition of lime salts in the cartilage matrix followed by secondary absorption and replacement by true bony tissue

membrane bone- a bone that ossifies directly in connective tissue without previous existence as cartilage

heterotopic bone- the percentage of osteoblasts is typically double that of normal bone
Example: formation of bone where it is not normally found, as in muscle


Blastema- a mass of living substance capable of growth and differentiation

Mesenchyme- loosely organized undifferentiated mesodermal cells that give rise to such structures as connective tissues, blood, lymphatics, bone, and cartilage

Chondrocytes- a cartilage cell

Chondroblast - a cell that produces cartilage

Osteocytes- a cell that is characteristic of adult bone and is isolated in a lacuna of the bone substance

osteoblast - a bone-forming cell

osteoclasts- bone cleaning cell

Compact bone - tightly packed tissue/bone

Spongy bone - tissue that makes up the interior of bones

Acellular bone- metabolically active tissue.
Example: Bone tissue in the Actinopterygii

Fontanels- a membrane-covered opening in bone or between bones
Example: any of the spaces closed by membranous structures between the uncompleted angles of the parietal bones and the neighboring bones of a fetal or young skull




Cranial kinesis- ??movement between the upper jaw and braincase

Cranial akinesis - ?skulls cannot perform the. actions of the kinetic skull

Sesamoid cartilages ?

Joints -

Sutures - a stitch used by doctors and surgeons to hold tissue together

Diarthrosis- a freely movable joint
Example: synovial joint

Synanthrosis- an immovable articulation in which the bones are united by intervening fibrous connective tissues

Amphiarthrosis- a slightly movable articulation

Synovial cartilaginous- stringy fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints

Fibrous joints- The fibrous joints are further divided into three types
Example: Sutures are found between bones of the skull. In fetal skulls the sutures are wide to allow slight movement during birth. They later become rigid synarthrodial

Hyostylic - mandibular arch attaches through the hyomandibula.

Craniostylic- incorporated into cranium, jaws (reduced to dentary alone) suspended directly from squamosal bone

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Fetal Pig
Anterior – head
Dorsal – back
Ventral – belly
Median – a plane passing though the middle (right and left)
Posterior – hind end
Distal -
Proximal –

All visible without dissection –
Eyes, Ears, Nose, External Nares, External Ear, Wrist, Digit (fingers), Anterior wall of body (middle belly), elbow, umbilical cord, knee, Posterior Wall of body cavity, Ankle, Anus, Tail,

Mouth - 3 Pairs of Glands – SALIVARY, PARTOID, SUBMAXILLARY, SUBLINGUAL - Produce AMYLASE

Hard Plate – bone covered with mucous membrane
Soft Palate- continuation of soft tissue covering the hard plate
Pharynx – end of oral cavity, base of tounge, to the STOMACH
Trachea – WIND PIPE

Alimentary Canal..(aka Digestive system) –

Mesenteries – suspend and support internal organs in the body cavity

Gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver, bile travels via a duct to small intestine

Stomach – under the liver,
Gastric glands in the stomach secrete – PEPSINOGEN, HYDROCHLORIC ACID, AND RENNIN (food is now called CHYME)

Small Intestine – DUODENUM (1st part) JEJUNUM (2nd part) ILEUM (3rd part)
Contain VILLI, covered with MUCOSA
Two types of cells – GOBLET CELLS (secrete mucus), COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS (absorption)

Pancreas – secretes several enzymes that digest carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid, (found btw curve of the stomach and duodenum)

Skin – 3 layers epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
In terms of chemical composition, the skin is about 70% water, 25% protein and 2% lipids.

Endocrine System

Endocrine System – all organs that tissues that produce hormones
Endocrine / Exocrine Glands

Hormone – chemical that is secreted into extracelluar fluid and carried by the blood
Act as a distance from the source
Only target with a receptor

Paracrine Regulators – DO NO TRAVEL IN BLOOD, allows cells of organs to related to each other

Pheromones – chemical released into the air (environment) to communicate among people

Neurohormones – i.e. norepinephrine – heart, liver, blood vessels during stress

Directly or Indirectly – hormones are released by the nervous system


Classes of Hormones
1. Peptides and Proteins – glycoproteins
2. Amino Acid Derivatives - TYROSINE
a. Catecholamines
b. Thyroid Hormones (tyrosine, T3, and T4, trioidothyronine)
c. Melatonin
i. Epinephrine and norepinhrine
3. Steroids
a. Sex steroids
b. Corticosteroids

EITHER Hormones are
1. Lipophilic – fat-soluble, NO POLAR
a. Steroids, thyroid hormones (tyrosine, and iodine)
b. Intra – cellular receptors
c. Derived from Cholesterol
d. Retinoids / VITAMIN A
2. Hydrophilic- water loving, POLAR

Endocrine Action – controls physiology with chemical signals from one part of the body to another, target cell undergoes a biological response.

Endocrine – born via bloodstream
Paracrine – close to local environment
Autocrine – acting on secreting cell
Neurocrine – neural cells that release chemical signals into bloodstream


Hypothalamus – releasing hormones
Tropic (stimulating) hormones – from pituitary to act on another endocrine gland
Non Tropic Hormones – from an endocrine gland to target cells

All cells respond to multiple hormones, hormones via receptors, receptors either at cell surface or intracellular

Paracrine Regulators – occurs in most organs,

1. Growth Factors – promote growth and cell division
a. Epidermal growth factor – skin
b. Nerve – nerve
c. Insulin-like growth factors – BONE
d. Cytokines – Immune System

2. Endothelium – rich source of paracrine regulators
a. Nitric Oxide (NO)
b. Endothelin – vasoconstriction
c. Bradykinin – vasodilation

3. Prostaglandins -diverse group of fatty acids that are produced almost in all organs
a. Regulates – smooth muscle, blood vessels, dilation,
b. NONSTEROIDAL ANTI INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
c. Immune system
d. Reproductive
e. Digestive
f. Circulatory
g. Urinary
h. Respiration

Receptor Kinases – for some peptide hormones ( like insulin) the receptor itself is a kinase (enzyme)
Other peptide hormones (like growth hormones) the receptor is NOT A KINASE, but rather is activates INTRACELLULAR Kinases

Hydrophilic Hormones- linked to second messenger protein called G PROTEINS (increase the second messenger molecules)
Second Messenger Stystems – many cAMP, DAG, IP3 ,

Lipophlic Hormones – pass thought the target cell’s plasma membrane and binds to intracellular receptor proteins, then binds to parts of the DNA, activates genes and regulates target cells





Peptides and Glycoproteins – too large to enter cell membrane (non, epe)
Binds to receptor located on the outer surface of the plasma membrane

Major Endocrine Glands –
a. Hypothalamus g. Adrenal Medulla
b. Anterior Pituitary h. Adrenal Cortex
c. Posterior Pituitary i. Pancreas
d. Pineal j. Ovaries
e. Thyroid k. Testes
f. Parathyroids l. Placenta



Pituitary Gland (aka hypophysis) – hangs from the hypothalamus
a. Anterior Pituitary – glandular, TROPIC HORMONES or TROPINS
a. Peptide Hormones, Protein Hormones , Glycoprotein hormones
i. Produces GROWTH HORMONES -muscles and bones
ii. OTHER??????
iii. Direct or indirect
iv. Releasing hormomes and inhibiting hormones,
v. HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSIAL PORTAL SYTSEM
vi. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK or FEEDBACK INHIBITION
vii. Dwarfism, gigantism
b. Posterior Pituitary – fiberous, comes from brain, directly connected to hypothalamus by tract of axons
i. Stores and releases two hormones that are produced by cell bodies in the hypothalamus
ii. NEURENDOCRINE RELEX
iii. Anitdiuretic hormones (ADH) – urine production
iv. Oxytocin- like ADH – 9 amino acids – reproductive behavior




Thyroid – behind the Adam’s apple (front of neck), promote growth in kids, maturation of central nerous system, binds to nuclear receptors, regulated carbs and lipid breakdown,
THYROID HORMONES
a. THYROXINE – set basal metabolic rate, HIGH AND LOW –HYPO-HYPER
b. Triiodothryonine
c. Calcitonin
a. A peptide hormone
b. Helps with the uptake of CALCIUM IONS INTO BONES



Parathroid Gland – 4 small glands attached to thyroid
Produce–PARATHYOID HORONE (PTH) because of FALLING CA2+ in blood
Activation of Vitamin D
PTH – sunlight VITAMIN D
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

Adrenal Gland –above the kidneys,
INNER –Adrenal Medulla
SECRETES EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE (help!!! alarm cells)

OUTER – Adrenal Cortex
Corticosteriods- hormones from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) reabsord Na and excrete K

Anterior pituitary – with hormone ACTH


Pancreas – next to stomach, connected to the duodenum of the small intestine
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS – SCATTERED CLUSTERS OF CELLS THROUGHOUT THE PANCREAS
ISLETS – B cells of islet secrete INSULIN (lowers glucose)
A cells of islet secrete GLUCAGON (raised glucose)
Promotes the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and fat in adipose

Heart

Circulatory System

Pulmonary Arteries – transport blood to lungs
Pulmonary Veins – transport oxygenated blood to heart
Aortic arch and trunk – main arteries from the heart
Common carotid artery – carries blood to brain
Renal vein and artery – connected to kidneys
Mesenteric Veins – connects to intestines

Arteries – away from heart ( A – AWAY)
Views – back to heart (deoxygenized)

Pulmonary circulation – move btw heart and lungs
Systemic circulation – moves blood btw heart and rest of the body

The Heart

Aorta – major artery of the systematic circulation, carries oxygen rich blood from the LEFT ventricle to all parts of the body

Coronary Arteries – supply heart itself

Superior Vena Cava – drains UPPER body
Inferior Vena Cava – drains LOWER body

Atrium – 2 parts (causes no blood to mix)
Right – deoxygenated blood from systematic circulation
Left – oxygenated blood from the lungs


Heart Values (2 pairs)
1. ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV value)
a. Guards the openings btw atria and ventricles
i. Right side - TRICUSPID VALUE
ii. Left side – BICUSPID,(aka) MITRAL VALVE
2. SEMILUNAR VALUES – out of the artery system
a. Right – PULMONARY VALUE
b. Left – AORTIC VALUE

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Diastole – relaxing state
Systole – slight delayed relaxing state (contracted)
BLOOD PRESSURE (sphygmomanometer) – SYSTOLIC / DIASTOLIC ratio

Pulmonary Arteries – deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the R and L lungs
Pulmonary Veins – return rich oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

Contraction of the Heart

Stimulated by membrane depolarization
Caused by SA NODE (sinoatrial node)***most important autorthymic fibers**

Autorthymic fibers – SA NODE ( sinoartial node) located in the right atrium, acts as the PACEMAKER for the rest of the heart, SPONTANEOUS ACTION POTENTIALS faster than other cells, WITHOUT NEURAL ACTIVATION

ATRIOVENTRICULAR – AV NODE, depolarization travels quickly over both ventriles by a network of fibers called the ATRIOVENTRICULAR bundle, aka (BUNDLE OF HIS)---information then relayed to PURKINJE FIBERS

PURKINJE FIBERS – directly stimulate the myocardial cells of the left and right ventricles causing the contraction

Blood Vessels

Arterioles – finest, microscopic branches of the arterial tree

Capillaries – blood from arterioles
Venules – blood is collected which leads to large vessesls *VEINS (back to heart)

Arteries & Veins – MADE UP OF:
**Endothemlium, Elastic Fibers, Smooth Muscle, Connective Tissue**

Capillaries – MADE UP OF:
One layer of endothemlium – allows rapid exchange of gases and metabolites btw blood and body cells

Arteries and arterioles- MADE UP OF:
Smooth muscle layer resulting in VASOCONSTRICTION, which increases resistance and decreases blood flow (hypertension and blood pressure)

***Vasoconstriction – contraction of smooth muscle layer, increased resistance and decrease flow
***Vasodilation – relaxing smooth muscle layer – decreasing resistance and increasing flow








Veins and Vensules – MADE UP OF:
Thinnest layer of smooth muscle (smoother muscle than arteries), work with skeletal muscles, ONE WAY contraction called VENOUS VALVES

Venous valves – moves blood one way

Lymphtatic System MADE UP OF:
Lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lympth nodes, and lymphatic organs

Lymph – one way values, drains into subclavian veins

Lymph Nodes – contain GERMINAL CENTER (lymphocyte activation)

Heart Diseases

Heart Attack – MYOCARDIAL INFRACTION, lack of blood to heart, #1
Atherosclerosis – fatty material in the arteries
Arteriosclerosis – artery hard due to calcium deposition
Athersclerotic Lesions – many issues!!

Angina Pectoris – CHEST PAIN

Stroke – interference with blood supply to BRAIN

Blood Pressure / Flow

AUTONOMIC NERVES SYSTEM
Medulla Oblongata – controls Heart Rate
Norepinephrine - SYMPATHETIC neurons, **increase heart rate
Acetylcholine – PARASYMPATHERTIC neurons, **decrease heart rate

Baroreceptor Reflex – NEGATIVE feed back loop that controls response to changes in blood pressure , detect change in arterial blood pressure
??????????

Blood Volume is regulated by 4 HORMONES (Blood pressure goes with blood volume)
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONES (ADH)
ALDOSTERONE
ATRIAL NATRIURETIC HORMONE
NITRIC OXIDE (NO)

Cardiac Output – volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per min

BP=CO x R
Blood pressure = (cardiac output)(resistance to blood flow)
Blood

Connective tissue, contains plasma, formed elements

Functions –
Transportation - materials (vitamins)
Regulation – body functions (urine)
Protection – injury (white blood cells, protects)

Plasma – made up of 92% WATER…also contains….

1. Nuterients, wastes, hormones
2. Ions
3. Proteins
a. Albumin- (alpha and beta globulins)
b. Fibrinogen -(if removed, called SERUM)
4. Red blood cells – ERYTHROCYTES (about 5 millon per MCL)
a. Hematocrit –fraction of the total blood volume occupied by red blood cells
5. Hemoglobin – pigment that binds and transport oxygen
6. White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
a. Less than 1% of blood
i. Larger than erythrocytes
ii. Can migrate out of capillaries
iii. GRANULAR – neutrophils, eosinophils, and baso phils
iv. ANGRANULAR – monocytes and lumphocytes

7. Platelets – pinch off from larger cells in bone marrow, blood clots


**ALL the formed elements of blood comes from PLURIPTENT STEM CELLS**

HEMOGLOBIN -
Effected by pH and temp (BOHR SHIFT)
Causes H+ bind to hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha helix and 2 B)
HEME – central iron atom that can bind to O2
OXYHEMOGLOBIN – loaded with O2, some molecules lose O2 causing DEOXYHEMGLOBIN

8% - of CO2 is dissolved in plasma
20% - bound to hemoglobin
72% - diffuse into red blood cells
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE (CO2 & H20= forms H2CO3)



Respiration

*works with the cardiovascular system to exchange gases btw the air and blood (external respiration) and btw blood tissue and fluid (internal respiration) * cellular respiration is the final destination where ATP is produced.

Fick’s law of diffusion – rate of diffusion btw two regions

R=DA(PIE)P / d

Gas Exchange – driven by differences in partial pressures GRADIENTS OF O2 AND CO2, ventilation perfusion mismatch

ALVEOLI – sites of gas exchange – surrounded by lots of capillaries, MILLIONS,

AIR –
1. Larynx – inhaled air passes through first then…Glottis, and trachea
2. Right and Left BRONCHI
3. BRONCHILOES – surround by capillary network

Tidal Volume – at rest
Vital capacity – max air expired
Hypoventilation – lack of breathing, HIGH PCO2 (partial pressure of co2)
Hyperventialation – excess breathing, LOW PCO2


Lungs- MEDULLA OBLONGATA **control center**
THORACIC CAVITY
Branched tubular passage, 2 way
Each covered with VISCERAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE
PARIETAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE –lungs INNER wall lined
PLEURAL CAVITY – SPACE BTW MEMBRANES
MEDULLA OBLONGATA – controls breathing
Neurons stop producing impulses , relaxed exhalation occure

NEURONS ARE SENSITIVE TO PARTIAL CHANGE IN CO2
More CO2, increases CARBONIC ACID, lowing pH
Chemosensitive Neurons
AROTIC
CAROTID BODIES

During inhalations two muscles contact
Intercostal Muscles- expand the rib cage
Diaphram- expands volume of thorax and lungs (NEGATIVE PRESSURE)

Elastic Tension- caused by breathing – Thorax , Lungs


EXPIRATION
Exhale
PASSIVE
Can become active
Uses internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
ELASTIC RECOIL
Alveoli stretch, STRETCH RECEPTORS than inhibit respiratory center

Air goes downward because of gravity
Partial Pressure????


INSPIRATION
Inhale
ACTIVE
Medulla Oblongata – causes rib cage to rise and diaphragm to lower, expansion
Negative Pressure – aka parial vacuum in alveoli causes air to come in
Increases CO+ and H+ in blood

ALVEOLAR MEMBERAN
SURFACTANT & WATER LAYER
Simple Squamous epithelium
Basement membrane of wall ??
Interstitial Space
Capillary Wall – simple SE
Basement membrane of cap wall

Pulmonary Ventilation – BREATHING, in and out of lungs, nasal breathing (cleans), PLEURAL SACS suspend the lungs from the thorax and contain fluid to prevent friction against thoracic cage , controlled by brain stem, sends impulses, CHEMORECEPORERS,

Pulmonary Diffusion – Oxygen rate a which it diffuses from alveoli into blood **OXYGEN DIFFUSION CAPACITY**
Trained – athletes, male, female?
**CARBON DIOXIDE’S MEMBRANE IS 20 TIMES GREATER THAN THAT OF OXYGEN, C02 DIFFUSES MORE QUICKLY**

GOAL OF RESPIRATION – maintain blood, tissue gases, pH to normal levels