Chem Exam 3

What is meant by the term electromagnetic radiation and what are its (physical) properties?

Waves and light are considered electromagnetic radiations. Electromagnetic radiations physical properties are dependant on wavelengths and frequencies. This is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. It includes gamma rays, x rays, far ultra-violet, near ultra violet, visible, near infrared, far infrared, microwaves, radio waves, and radar.

A wave is constituted by its frequency and wavelength. Wave length is represented by lambda. Lambda is the exactly the distance between to points, or peaks on the wave.

Wavelength is calculated using nanometers. (1 nm = 10-9 m) See example, 7.2 pg. 267--Heather, this is why you use 10-9!

Frequency is how many times a wave passes a point during a second. See figure 7.4 for a simple explanation of wave length and frequency, and to see how they relate.

Important Calculation:

When asked to calculate wavelength use below formula:
Lambda (distance)=c (speed of light constant 3.00 x 108 m/s)/v (frequency)

When asked to calculate frequency use below formula:
V (frequency)=c (speed of light constant)/lambda (distance)












Our desire is to learn something more about the atom and atomic structure. In chapter 2 we learned about Dalton's Atomic Theory (the atomic nature of matter). The nuclear theory of the atom had us to understand that the atom has a compact nucleus and is largely empty space containing the electrons outside of the nucleus. Describe what is happening in figures 7.1 and 7.2. What kind(s) of information are figures 7.1 and 7.2 providing? What kind(s) of information are figures 7.3-7.5 providing? In figure 7.4 the top wave has a frequency of 2 Hertz. What does that mean and how would I be able to determine that from the figure?
Further study: problems 7.35-7.38

In figure 7.1 a “wire loop” is placed into a flame. Depending on the placement of the wire loop the light emitted from the flame is different. In the first picture the loop is placed horizontal and close to the gas apparatus. The metal element releases the atoms in gas form and show the element and its particular color. For example, the first picture in 7.1 is lithium, which produced a red color, and a blue color for the gas. In the second picture, the wire loop was moved vertically and higher up, producing a yellow color, and again a blue color from the gas. Yellow emission of atoms is an indication of the element Na, sodium. In figure 7.2 each element is placed onto a chart, showing the color that corresponded to the visible light emitted by the elements atoms. The wavelength is also determined for each element and its numerical characteristics in nanometers.
In figure 7.3 the illustration is of a water wave ripple. This figure shows Lambda (wavelength), with identical peaks of the ripples, exactly the same space from each other.
In figured 7.4 the relationship between frequency and wavelength are correlated. See first discussion post for a more detailed explanation. You can determine the top wavelength in figure 7.4 as 2 Hz because of the two equal peaks frequency. The bottom example have 4 identical peaks in one second, giving it a frequency of 4 Hz.
Practice Problem 7.35
Since the question is asking for wavelength use this equation Lambda (distance)=c (speed of light constant 3.00 x 108 m/s)/v (frequency)
3.00x108 m/s/1.365 x106/s = 219.6 m (because seconds cancel)
Practice Problem 7.37
V (frequency)=c (speed of light constant)/lambda (distance)
V=3.00x108 m/s/478x 10-9= 6.27 x 1014/s

Problem 1
The Black Body Problem was an experiment Max Planck did. He heated solids and watched them change color as the temperature was increased and decreased. For example, at 750 degrees Celsius a solid metal object glows red, and at 1200 degrees Celsius a metal solid glows white. I think this concept of heating solids to observe a color is known as blackbody radiation.

Planck’s experiment created a theory that the atoms in a solid vibrate, and only have a particular vibration (E).
Equation:
E=nhv
E(atom vibration)=n(quantum number, or size)h(Planck’s constant – 6.63 x 10-37)v(frequency)

In the attached figure, another theory (Rayleigh-Jeans Law) is when a solid is experimented with at low temperatures. The wavelength doesn’t pass the horizontal axis, which means it slows down, and is not visible. There is no vibration.

Problem 2
Photoelectric effect is a theory from Einstein. He used Planck’s data about quantum theory and expanded on it. Einstein theorized that light (from any source) is made up of photons, and the photons eject electrons from objects (metals) it hits. In order to see a color the amount of electrons ejected need to be over a certain number, also known as “threshold value.”


Light behaves like matter because of the electromagnetic energy (photon) in the light. When photons hit an object the energy is absorbed in the object, and the photon is gone. Einstein’s equation shows the relationship.

Equation:
E=hv
E(vibration)=h(Planck’s constant – 6.63 x 10-37)v(frequency)


In figure 7.6 electromagnetic energy or photons, are being shined on a mental object. The metal object is ejecting the electrons and they are being caught by the positive wire connected to the metal. This is causing the ammeter in the battery to move because of the capturing of the ejected electrons from the photons (or photoelectric energy).









An energy of 2.0 x 102 kJ/mol is required to cause a cesium atom on a metal surface to lose an electron. What is the quanta of energy per atom? Calculate the longest possible wavelength of light that can ionize a cesium atom. In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum is this radiation found?


Problem one
Since the equation is E=hv, I think you can change the equation to get quanta into v=E/n

2.0 x 102 / 6.63 x 10-35 = 3.02 x 1036 (not sure what units)

Longest possible wavelength
This is the longest as possible, because the speed of light is constant (?).

Radio Waves (?)

Heather –
Did you get this?


You are an engineer designing a switch that works by the photoelectric effect. The metal you wish to use in your device requires 6.7 x 10-19 J/atom to remove an electron. Will the switch work if the light falling on the metal has a wavelength of 540 nm or greater? Why or why not?

No the switch will NOT work if the lights wavelength is 540 nm. The quanta frequency would need to be more than double.

Why because of Mathematical Explanation:

Lambda=3.00 x 108 / 540 x 10-9 = 5.56 x 1014

E= (6.63 x 10-34)(5.56 x 1014) = 3.69 x10-19 (required 6.7 x 10-19 J/atom)









Problem 7.49

WOW I think I got this!

(-RH/25)-(-RH/9)=-9RH+25RH/225=16RH/225=hv

v=16RH/225h=16/225(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)=2.34 x 1014

Problem 7.50

Am I right?

(-RH/16)-(-RH/9)=-9RH+16RH/144=7RH/144=hv

v=7RH/144h=7/144(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)=1.60 x 1014

Problem 7.51

I know this is right!!!

(-RH/4)-(-RH/1)=-1RH+4RH/4=3RH/4=hv

v=3RH/4h=3/4(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)=1.21 x 10-7 or 121 nm, Near Ultra Violet

Problem 7.52

Is this right?

(-RH/25)-(-RH/16)=-16RH+25RH/400=9RH/400=hv

v=9RH/400h=9/400(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)= 7.40 x 1013, Near Infrared


I do not understand what you are looking for***Using figure 7.11 and Example 7.4, assign these bands to electron transitions within the hydrogen atom****

Exercise 7.5
I need help with this. I don’t understand







Part A. de Broglie Relation
Exercise 7.6
6.63 x 10-34/2.19 x 106 = 3.03 x 10-40 or 303 pm (??)
Problems 7.57
WOW! I am getting good!
Use the equation lambda=h/mv, where v is now speed because the question is asking the wavelength of a neutron.
6.63 x 10-34/1.67 x 10-27 (4.15) = 9.57 pm
Problem 7.58
6.63 x 10-34/1.67 x 10-27 (6.58) = 6.03 10-8, far ultra-violet
Part B. Matter-waves, the uncertainty principle and the Wave Model of the Atom
Problem 7.61 (pg. 290)
6.63 x 10-34/(145)(30.0) = 1.52 x 10-37 ( the answer is 1.52 x 10-22 --any idea what went wrong), decreased, smaller
The uncertainty value is since the electron is affected by the nucleus, in moves around inside a shell. For example, how earth goes around the sun. Even though the electron has an as exact orbit in an atom around the nucleus (or shell), the unknown of where how the electron will move is unknown value.
In figure 7.17 mostly you will find the hydrogen atoms electron in this region (pg.279). It is somewhere from 110 pm, and below from the lowest energy from only the wave.
In figure 7.18 the radius is shown of the probability of where the hydrogen atoms electron is from the nucleus. The peak in the figure is at 50 pm, which in the highest radial probability.




Part C. Wave Model Versus Bohr's Model
In think figure 7.10 is confusing. I do understand how the negative constant (-RH) is related to principal quantum number (n). As the n increase the -RH increases? Does anyone know why? The graph doesn’t show the spherical shape of the atom, instead it shows it in a straight line and maybe that’s why I do not like it.
In figure for 7.23 it is showing a 1s orbital. The electron distribution, or probability of finding the electrons is where the pink color is darker. In the 2s orbital the probability has two dark pink rings. Again, that denotes where the electron should be. In figure 7.24 shows the outer membrane (not sure what to call that) of the atom is least likely place you will find the electron. Since the diagram is a cutaway, you can see the darkest pink rings and that is where you will most likely find the electron.


If I was to redraw the Bohr I would use triangles. Each line would represent one n value. n=1 being the smallest triangle, n=2 second triangle, n=3 third triangle





























The Pauli Exclusion principle is that no two elements can have the same n number. For example each shell holds two electrons. One 1s orbital holds two electrons, one ms value is ½ the magnetic spin and the other ms value is – ½ the magnetic spin. The spin is represented in arrows. You can not have two up arrows in an orbit because of the electrons behavior to magnetic energy.

Exercise 8.1

A. Impossible, because 1s can hold 2 electrons.
B. Impossible, you have to fill up 1s first, then 2s second, the 2p
C. Impossible, two with the same spin
D. Possible, written correctly
E. Impossible, 2s can only fit 2 electrons
F. Impossible, after the 3p orbital is full, you have to put one electron in the 4s orbital to move on to the next orbital

Exercise 8.41

A. Impossible, two same spin
B. Possible, ok
C. Impossible, two same spin
D. Impossible, three electrons in one orbit (2 max)

Exercise 8.42
A. Impossible, two same spin
B. Possible, ok
C. Impossible, three electrons in one orbit
D. Possible,

Exercise 8.43
A. Impossible, 1s isn’t full
B. Impossible, 3s only room for two electrons
C. Possible, ok
D. Possible, d can hold 10


Hund's rule is that you must fill each subshell with a positive ms value. This is because they have low energy and have to be placed into different orbital subshells.
An example of an orbital diagram that obeys the rule is one page 309. [Ar] electron configuration (valance shell) is 1s22p63s63p6. If you use the Hund’s rule you can abbreviate [Ar] 3d64s2 . This is because according to the rule, you can fill up each orbital with one electron (in the same spin). Instead of pairing on the electrons in the orbital, they can be separated out.
The Aufbau principle is the building of the ground state of the electron configuration by filling the orbitals in its electron configuration. For example, 3s has lower energy than 3p. The longer the electron configuration the higher the energy it will be (build up principle). Another example is 2p2 has less energy than 2p6.
On pg 309 Neon obeys the rules, and C and N does not. (I think)
C & N= Paramagnetic Neon = Diamagnetic (definitely)
Other
An orbital that has two electrons is more stable than an orbital that has one electron.

Benzene (C6H6) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and liquid water. What is the heat released when 49.04 grams of benzene is combusted?

Benzene (C6H6) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and liquid water. What is the heat released when 49.04 grams of benzene is combusted? The standard enthalpy of formation of benzene is 49.04 kJ/mol

-3268 kJ 1000 J 1 ev 1 amu 1.66054 x 10-27 1000 g
mol 1 kJ 1.60218 x 10-19 J 931.5 x 106 J 1 amu 1 kJ

= -1.14 x 10-28 grams

C A Vocab

Oviparous- animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother

Viviparous- producing living young instead of eggs from within the body in the manner of nearly all mammals, many reptiles, and a few fishes

Ovoviviparous- producing eggs that develop within the maternal body and hatch within or immediately after extrusion from the parent

Ontogeny – changes in organism from zygote to death, although often focused on events from zygote to maturity.

Cleavage – a rapid series of cell divisions that follows fertilization and produces a multi-cellular blastula.

Blastocoel- the cavity of a blastula

Neurulation- an early vertebrate embryo which follows the gastrula and in which nervous tissue begins to differentiate and the basic pattern of the vertebrate begins to emerge

Trophoblast- the outer cellular layer of the mammalian blastocyst

Inner cell mass- the portion of the blastocyst of a mammalian embryo that is destined to become the embryo proper

Blastocyst- the mammalian blastula

Neural crest cells- migrate and ultimately differentiate into a wide variety of adult structures. The migrations begin cranially and gradually extend caudally. They are determined by both intrinsic properties of the neural crest cells and the features of the external environment encountered by the migrating cells - extracellular matrices and substrates.

Gastrula- an early metazoan embryo in which the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are established either by invagination of the blastula (as in fish and amphibians) to form a multilayered cellular cup with a blastopore opening into the archenteron or (as in reptiles, birds, and mammals) by differentiation of the upper layer of the blastodisc into the ectoderm and the lower layer into the endoderm and by the inward migration of cells through the primitive streak to form the mesoderm

Gastrocoele- ? rib-shaped dermal bones located in the abdominal region

Archenteron- the cavity of the gastrula of an embryo forming a primitive gut—called also gastrocoel

Chorion- the highly vascular outer embryonic membrane that is associated with the allantois in the formation of the placenta

Somites- ?


Allantois- a vascular fetal membrane of reptiles, birds, or mammals that is formed as a pouch from the hindgut and that in placental mammals is intimately associated with the chorion in formation of the placenta

Yolk Sac- a membranous sac of most vertebrates that is attached to an embryo and encloses the yolk, that is continuous in most forms including humans through the omphalomesenteric duct with the intestinal cavity of the embryo, that is abundantly supplied with blood vessels which transport nutritive yolk products to the developing embryo, and that in placental mammals is nearly vestigial and functions chiefly prior to the formation of the placenta

Blastopore- the opening into the primitive gut formed at gastrulation

Amnion- a saclike membrance that holds the develipoing embryo in a compartment of water

Coelom- the fluid filled body cavity formed within the mesoderm
transverse septum-
cleidoic egg- enclosed in a relatively impervious shell which reduces free exchange with the environment

Diaphragm- a body partition of muscle and connective tissue ; specifically : the partition separating the chest and abdominal cavities in mammals

Organogenesis- the origin and development of bodily organs

Holoblastic cleavage – early mitotic planes pass entirely through the cleaving embryo

Discoidal cleavage – early mitotic divisions restricted to the animal pole

Meroblastic- characterized by or being incomplete cleavage as a result of the presence of an impeding mass of yolk material (as in the eggs of birds)

Microlecithal- pertaining to eggs that contain small quantities of stored yolk

Mesolecithal- ?

Macrolecithal- ?




Epidermis – the skin layer over the dermis that is derived from ectoderm
Example: outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelium

Dermis - inner mesodermic layer of the skin, vascular
Example:

Sebaceous glands- any of the small sacculated glands lodged in the substance of the derma, usually opening into the hair follicles, and secreting an oily or greasy material composed in great part of fat which softens and lubricates the hair and skin

Sweat glands- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft

mammary- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft

hair - a slender threadlike outgrowth of the epidermis of an anima

nails- are made of keratin

Melanocytes - an epidermal cell that produces melanin

keratin –
Example: hair and nails

squamous epithelium- scale-like cells

stratum basale feathers –

claws-

Chromatophores- a pigment-bearing cell
Example: higher levels darker skin, lower levels whiter skin

Photophores- light-emitting organ which appears as luminous spots on various marine animals, including fish and cephalopods
Example: Firefly Squid, Pachystomias

Ectotherm- a cold-blooded animal

Endotherm- a warm-blooded animal

Poikilotherm- an organism (as a frog) with a variable body temperature that is usually slightly higher than the temperature of its environment : a cold-blooded organism—called also heterotherm


Horns-

Epidermal scales – scales are tough, shed
Example: reptiles, and exposed skin in birds

Ctenoid scales- toothed outer edge, and are usually found on more bony fish
Example: spiny fin rays, bass and the angel fish

Placoid scales- are found on cartilaginous fish
Example: sharks

Cycloid scales-
Example: flatfishes (flounders, fluke, soles)

Mucus glands-

Axial Skeleton - the skeleton of the trunk and head
appendicular skeleton- consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the limb

Neurocranium- the portion of the skull that encloses and protects the brain

Splanchnocranium- the portion of the skull that arises from the first three branchial arches and forms the supporting structure of the jaws

Dermatocranium- Bony parts of the skull derived from ossifications in the dermis of the skin

Hyaline cartilage- cartilage consisting of cells embedded in an apparently homogeneous matrix, present in joints and respiratory passages, and forming most of the fetal skeleton

Calcified cartilage- flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle

Fibrocartilage- cartilage in which the matrix except immediately about the cells is largely composed of fibers like those of ordinary connective tissue

Diaphysis- the shaft of a long bone

Epiphyses- an end of a long bone
Metaphysic- the transitional zone at which the diaphysis and epiphysis of a bone come together

Endochondral bone -relating to, formed by, or being ossification that takes place from centers arising in cartilage and involves deposition of lime salts in the cartilage matrix followed by secondary absorption and replacement by true bony tissue

membrane bone- a bone that ossifies directly in connective tissue without previous existence as cartilage

heterotopic bone- the percentage of osteoblasts is typically double that of normal bone
Example: formation of bone where it is not normally found, as in muscle


Blastema- a mass of living substance capable of growth and differentiation

Mesenchyme- loosely organized undifferentiated mesodermal cells that give rise to such structures as connective tissues, blood, lymphatics, bone, and cartilage

Chondrocytes- a cartilage cell

Chondroblast - a cell that produces cartilage

Osteocytes- a cell that is characteristic of adult bone and is isolated in a lacuna of the bone substance

osteoblast - a bone-forming cell

osteoclasts- bone cleaning cell

Compact bone - tightly packed tissue/bone

Spongy bone - tissue that makes up the interior of bones

Acellular bone- metabolically active tissue.
Example: Bone tissue in the Actinopterygii

Fontanels- a membrane-covered opening in bone or between bones
Example: any of the spaces closed by membranous structures between the uncompleted angles of the parietal bones and the neighboring bones of a fetal or young skull




Cranial kinesis- ??movement between the upper jaw and braincase

Cranial akinesis - ?skulls cannot perform the. actions of the kinetic skull

Sesamoid cartilages ?

Joints -

Sutures - a stitch used by doctors and surgeons to hold tissue together

Diarthrosis- a freely movable joint
Example: synovial joint

Synanthrosis- an immovable articulation in which the bones are united by intervening fibrous connective tissues

Amphiarthrosis- a slightly movable articulation

Synovial cartilaginous- stringy fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints

Fibrous joints- The fibrous joints are further divided into three types
Example: Sutures are found between bones of the skull. In fetal skulls the sutures are wide to allow slight movement during birth. They later become rigid synarthrodial

Hyostylic - mandibular arch attaches through the hyomandibula.

Craniostylic- incorporated into cranium, jaws (reduced to dentary alone) suspended directly from squamosal bone

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Cat, Science,

Pig dissection is biology laboratory.

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फेटल pig

Fetal Pig
Anterior – head
Dorsal – back
Ventral – belly
Median – a plane passing though the middle (right and left)
Posterior – hind end
Distal -
Proximal –

All visible without dissection –
Eyes, Ears, Nose, External Nares, External Ear, Wrist, Digit (fingers), Anterior wall of body (middle belly), elbow, umbilical cord, knee, Posterior Wall of body cavity, Ankle, Anus, Tail,

Mouth - 3 Pairs of Glands – SALIVARY, PARTOID, SUBMAXILLARY, SUBLINGUAL - Produce AMYLASE

Hard Plate – bone covered with mucous membrane
Soft Palate- continuation of soft tissue covering the hard plate
Pharynx – end of oral cavity, base of tounge, to the STOMACH
Trachea – WIND PIPE

Alimentary Canal..(aka Digestive system) –

Mesenteries – suspend and support internal organs in the body cavity

Gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver, bile travels via a duct to small intestine

Stomach – under the liver,
Gastric glands in the stomach secrete – PEPSINOGEN, HYDROCHLORIC ACID, AND RENNIN (food is now called CHYME)

Small Intestine – DUODENUM (1st part) JEJUNUM (2nd part) ILEUM (3rd part)
Contain VILLI, covered with MUCOSA
Two types of cells – GOBLET CELLS (secrete mucus), COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS (absorption)

Pancreas – secretes several enzymes that digest carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid, (found btw curve of the stomach and duodenum)

Skin – 3 layers epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
In terms of chemical composition, the skin is about 70% water, 25% protein and 2% lipids.

Endocrine System

Endocrine System – all organs that tissues that produce hormones
Endocrine / Exocrine Glands

Hormone – chemical that is secreted into extracelluar fluid and carried by the blood
Act as a distance from the source
Only target with a receptor

Paracrine Regulators – DO NO TRAVEL IN BLOOD, allows cells of organs to related to each other

Pheromones – chemical released into the air (environment) to communicate among people

Neurohormones – i.e. norepinephrine – heart, liver, blood vessels during stress

Directly or Indirectly – hormones are released by the nervous system


Classes of Hormones
1. Peptides and Proteins – glycoproteins
2. Amino Acid Derivatives - TYROSINE
a. Catecholamines
b. Thyroid Hormones (tyrosine, T3, and T4, trioidothyronine)
c. Melatonin
i. Epinephrine and norepinhrine
3. Steroids
a. Sex steroids
b. Corticosteroids

EITHER Hormones are
1. Lipophilic – fat-soluble, NO POLAR
a. Steroids, thyroid hormones (tyrosine, and iodine)
b. Intra – cellular receptors
c. Derived from Cholesterol
d. Retinoids / VITAMIN A
2. Hydrophilic- water loving, POLAR

Endocrine Action – controls physiology with chemical signals from one part of the body to another, target cell undergoes a biological response.

Endocrine – born via bloodstream
Paracrine – close to local environment
Autocrine – acting on secreting cell
Neurocrine – neural cells that release chemical signals into bloodstream


Hypothalamus – releasing hormones
Tropic (stimulating) hormones – from pituitary to act on another endocrine gland
Non Tropic Hormones – from an endocrine gland to target cells

All cells respond to multiple hormones, hormones via receptors, receptors either at cell surface or intracellular

Paracrine Regulators – occurs in most organs,

1. Growth Factors – promote growth and cell division
a. Epidermal growth factor – skin
b. Nerve – nerve
c. Insulin-like growth factors – BONE
d. Cytokines – Immune System

2. Endothelium – rich source of paracrine regulators
a. Nitric Oxide (NO)
b. Endothelin – vasoconstriction
c. Bradykinin – vasodilation

3. Prostaglandins -diverse group of fatty acids that are produced almost in all organs
a. Regulates – smooth muscle, blood vessels, dilation,
b. NONSTEROIDAL ANTI INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
c. Immune system
d. Reproductive
e. Digestive
f. Circulatory
g. Urinary
h. Respiration

Receptor Kinases – for some peptide hormones ( like insulin) the receptor itself is a kinase (enzyme)
Other peptide hormones (like growth hormones) the receptor is NOT A KINASE, but rather is activates INTRACELLULAR Kinases

Hydrophilic Hormones- linked to second messenger protein called G PROTEINS (increase the second messenger molecules)
Second Messenger Stystems – many cAMP, DAG, IP3 ,

Lipophlic Hormones – pass thought the target cell’s plasma membrane and binds to intracellular receptor proteins, then binds to parts of the DNA, activates genes and regulates target cells





Peptides and Glycoproteins – too large to enter cell membrane (non, epe)
Binds to receptor located on the outer surface of the plasma membrane

Major Endocrine Glands –
a. Hypothalamus g. Adrenal Medulla
b. Anterior Pituitary h. Adrenal Cortex
c. Posterior Pituitary i. Pancreas
d. Pineal j. Ovaries
e. Thyroid k. Testes
f. Parathyroids l. Placenta



Pituitary Gland (aka hypophysis) – hangs from the hypothalamus
a. Anterior Pituitary – glandular, TROPIC HORMONES or TROPINS
a. Peptide Hormones, Protein Hormones , Glycoprotein hormones
i. Produces GROWTH HORMONES -muscles and bones
ii. OTHER??????
iii. Direct or indirect
iv. Releasing hormomes and inhibiting hormones,
v. HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSIAL PORTAL SYTSEM
vi. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK or FEEDBACK INHIBITION
vii. Dwarfism, gigantism
b. Posterior Pituitary – fiberous, comes from brain, directly connected to hypothalamus by tract of axons
i. Stores and releases two hormones that are produced by cell bodies in the hypothalamus
ii. NEURENDOCRINE RELEX
iii. Anitdiuretic hormones (ADH) – urine production
iv. Oxytocin- like ADH – 9 amino acids – reproductive behavior




Thyroid – behind the Adam’s apple (front of neck), promote growth in kids, maturation of central nerous system, binds to nuclear receptors, regulated carbs and lipid breakdown,
THYROID HORMONES
a. THYROXINE – set basal metabolic rate, HIGH AND LOW –HYPO-HYPER
b. Triiodothryonine
c. Calcitonin
a. A peptide hormone
b. Helps with the uptake of CALCIUM IONS INTO BONES



Parathroid Gland – 4 small glands attached to thyroid
Produce–PARATHYOID HORONE (PTH) because of FALLING CA2+ in blood
Activation of Vitamin D
PTH – sunlight VITAMIN D
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS

Adrenal Gland –above the kidneys,
INNER –Adrenal Medulla
SECRETES EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE (help!!! alarm cells)

OUTER – Adrenal Cortex
Corticosteriods- hormones from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) reabsord Na and excrete K

Anterior pituitary – with hormone ACTH


Pancreas – next to stomach, connected to the duodenum of the small intestine
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS – SCATTERED CLUSTERS OF CELLS THROUGHOUT THE PANCREAS
ISLETS – B cells of islet secrete INSULIN (lowers glucose)
A cells of islet secrete GLUCAGON (raised glucose)
Promotes the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and fat in adipose