What is meant by the term electromagnetic radiation and what are its (physical) properties?
Waves and light are considered electromagnetic radiations. Electromagnetic radiations physical properties are dependant on wavelengths and frequencies. This is known as the electromagnetic spectrum. It includes gamma rays, x rays, far ultra-violet, near ultra violet, visible, near infrared, far infrared, microwaves, radio waves, and radar.
A wave is constituted by its frequency and wavelength. Wave length is represented by lambda. Lambda is the exactly the distance between to points, or peaks on the wave.
Wavelength is calculated using nanometers. (1 nm = 10-9 m) See example, 7.2 pg. 267--Heather, this is why you use 10-9!
Frequency is how many times a wave passes a point during a second. See figure 7.4 for a simple explanation of wave length and frequency, and to see how they relate.
Important Calculation:
When asked to calculate wavelength use below formula:
Lambda (distance)=c (speed of light constant 3.00 x 108 m/s)/v (frequency)
When asked to calculate frequency use below formula:
V (frequency)=c (speed of light constant)/lambda (distance)
Our desire is to learn something more about the atom and atomic structure. In chapter 2 we learned about Dalton's Atomic Theory (the atomic nature of matter). The nuclear theory of the atom had us to understand that the atom has a compact nucleus and is largely empty space containing the electrons outside of the nucleus. Describe what is happening in figures 7.1 and 7.2. What kind(s) of information are figures 7.1 and 7.2 providing? What kind(s) of information are figures 7.3-7.5 providing? In figure 7.4 the top wave has a frequency of 2 Hertz. What does that mean and how would I be able to determine that from the figure?
Further study: problems 7.35-7.38
In figure 7.1 a “wire loop” is placed into a flame. Depending on the placement of the wire loop the light emitted from the flame is different. In the first picture the loop is placed horizontal and close to the gas apparatus. The metal element releases the atoms in gas form and show the element and its particular color. For example, the first picture in 7.1 is lithium, which produced a red color, and a blue color for the gas. In the second picture, the wire loop was moved vertically and higher up, producing a yellow color, and again a blue color from the gas. Yellow emission of atoms is an indication of the element Na, sodium. In figure 7.2 each element is placed onto a chart, showing the color that corresponded to the visible light emitted by the elements atoms. The wavelength is also determined for each element and its numerical characteristics in nanometers.
In figure 7.3 the illustration is of a water wave ripple. This figure shows Lambda (wavelength), with identical peaks of the ripples, exactly the same space from each other.
In figured 7.4 the relationship between frequency and wavelength are correlated. See first discussion post for a more detailed explanation. You can determine the top wavelength in figure 7.4 as 2 Hz because of the two equal peaks frequency. The bottom example have 4 identical peaks in one second, giving it a frequency of 4 Hz.
Practice Problem 7.35
Since the question is asking for wavelength use this equation Lambda (distance)=c (speed of light constant 3.00 x 108 m/s)/v (frequency)
3.00x108 m/s/1.365 x106/s = 219.6 m (because seconds cancel)
Practice Problem 7.37
V (frequency)=c (speed of light constant)/lambda (distance)
V=3.00x108 m/s/478x 10-9= 6.27 x 1014/s
Problem 1
The Black Body Problem was an experiment Max Planck did. He heated solids and watched them change color as the temperature was increased and decreased. For example, at 750 degrees Celsius a solid metal object glows red, and at 1200 degrees Celsius a metal solid glows white. I think this concept of heating solids to observe a color is known as blackbody radiation.
Planck’s experiment created a theory that the atoms in a solid vibrate, and only have a particular vibration (E).
Equation:
E=nhv
E(atom vibration)=n(quantum number, or size)h(Planck’s constant – 6.63 x 10-37)v(frequency)
In the attached figure, another theory (Rayleigh-Jeans Law) is when a solid is experimented with at low temperatures. The wavelength doesn’t pass the horizontal axis, which means it slows down, and is not visible. There is no vibration.
Problem 2
Photoelectric effect is a theory from Einstein. He used Planck’s data about quantum theory and expanded on it. Einstein theorized that light (from any source) is made up of photons, and the photons eject electrons from objects (metals) it hits. In order to see a color the amount of electrons ejected need to be over a certain number, also known as “threshold value.”
Light behaves like matter because of the electromagnetic energy (photon) in the light. When photons hit an object the energy is absorbed in the object, and the photon is gone. Einstein’s equation shows the relationship.
Equation:
E=hv
E(vibration)=h(Planck’s constant – 6.63 x 10-37)v(frequency)
In figure 7.6 electromagnetic energy or photons, are being shined on a mental object. The metal object is ejecting the electrons and they are being caught by the positive wire connected to the metal. This is causing the ammeter in the battery to move because of the capturing of the ejected electrons from the photons (or photoelectric energy).
An energy of 2.0 x 102 kJ/mol is required to cause a cesium atom on a metal surface to lose an electron. What is the quanta of energy per atom? Calculate the longest possible wavelength of light that can ionize a cesium atom. In what region of the electromagnetic spectrum is this radiation found?
Problem one
Since the equation is E=hv, I think you can change the equation to get quanta into v=E/n
2.0 x 102 / 6.63 x 10-35 = 3.02 x 1036 (not sure what units)
Longest possible wavelength
This is the longest as possible, because the speed of light is constant (?).
Radio Waves (?)
Heather –
Did you get this?
You are an engineer designing a switch that works by the photoelectric effect. The metal you wish to use in your device requires 6.7 x 10-19 J/atom to remove an electron. Will the switch work if the light falling on the metal has a wavelength of 540 nm or greater? Why or why not?
No the switch will NOT work if the lights wavelength is 540 nm. The quanta frequency would need to be more than double.
Why because of Mathematical Explanation:
Lambda=3.00 x 108 / 540 x 10-9 = 5.56 x 1014
E= (6.63 x 10-34)(5.56 x 1014) = 3.69 x10-19 (required 6.7 x 10-19 J/atom)
Problem 7.49
WOW I think I got this!
(-RH/25)-(-RH/9)=-9RH+25RH/225=16RH/225=hv
v=16RH/225h=16/225(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)=2.34 x 1014
Problem 7.50
Am I right?
(-RH/16)-(-RH/9)=-9RH+16RH/144=7RH/144=hv
v=7RH/144h=7/144(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)=1.60 x 1014
Problem 7.51
I know this is right!!!
(-RH/4)-(-RH/1)=-1RH+4RH/4=3RH/4=hv
v=3RH/4h=3/4(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)=1.21 x 10-7 or 121 nm, Near Ultra Violet
Problem 7.52
Is this right?
(-RH/25)-(-RH/16)=-16RH+25RH/400=9RH/400=hv
v=9RH/400h=9/400(2.179x10-18)/(6.626x10-34)= 7.40 x 1013, Near Infrared
I do not understand what you are looking for***Using figure 7.11 and Example 7.4, assign these bands to electron transitions within the hydrogen atom****
Exercise 7.5
I need help with this. I don’t understand
Part A. de Broglie Relation
Exercise 7.6
6.63 x 10-34/2.19 x 106 = 3.03 x 10-40 or 303 pm (??)
Problems 7.57
WOW! I am getting good!
Use the equation lambda=h/mv, where v is now speed because the question is asking the wavelength of a neutron.
6.63 x 10-34/1.67 x 10-27 (4.15) = 9.57 pm
Problem 7.58
6.63 x 10-34/1.67 x 10-27 (6.58) = 6.03 10-8, far ultra-violet
Part B. Matter-waves, the uncertainty principle and the Wave Model of the Atom
Problem 7.61 (pg. 290)
6.63 x 10-34/(145)(30.0) = 1.52 x 10-37 ( the answer is 1.52 x 10-22 --any idea what went wrong), decreased, smaller
The uncertainty value is since the electron is affected by the nucleus, in moves around inside a shell. For example, how earth goes around the sun. Even though the electron has an as exact orbit in an atom around the nucleus (or shell), the unknown of where how the electron will move is unknown value.
In figure 7.17 mostly you will find the hydrogen atoms electron in this region (pg.279). It is somewhere from 110 pm, and below from the lowest energy from only the wave.
In figure 7.18 the radius is shown of the probability of where the hydrogen atoms electron is from the nucleus. The peak in the figure is at 50 pm, which in the highest radial probability.
Part C. Wave Model Versus Bohr's Model
In think figure 7.10 is confusing. I do understand how the negative constant (-RH) is related to principal quantum number (n). As the n increase the -RH increases? Does anyone know why? The graph doesn’t show the spherical shape of the atom, instead it shows it in a straight line and maybe that’s why I do not like it.
In figure for 7.23 it is showing a 1s orbital. The electron distribution, or probability of finding the electrons is where the pink color is darker. In the 2s orbital the probability has two dark pink rings. Again, that denotes where the electron should be. In figure 7.24 shows the outer membrane (not sure what to call that) of the atom is least likely place you will find the electron. Since the diagram is a cutaway, you can see the darkest pink rings and that is where you will most likely find the electron.
If I was to redraw the Bohr I would use triangles. Each line would represent one n value. n=1 being the smallest triangle, n=2 second triangle, n=3 third triangle
The Pauli Exclusion principle is that no two elements can have the same n number. For example each shell holds two electrons. One 1s orbital holds two electrons, one ms value is ½ the magnetic spin and the other ms value is – ½ the magnetic spin. The spin is represented in arrows. You can not have two up arrows in an orbit because of the electrons behavior to magnetic energy.
Exercise 8.1
A. Impossible, because 1s can hold 2 electrons.
B. Impossible, you have to fill up 1s first, then 2s second, the 2p
C. Impossible, two with the same spin
D. Possible, written correctly
E. Impossible, 2s can only fit 2 electrons
F. Impossible, after the 3p orbital is full, you have to put one electron in the 4s orbital to move on to the next orbital
Exercise 8.41
A. Impossible, two same spin
B. Possible, ok
C. Impossible, two same spin
D. Impossible, three electrons in one orbit (2 max)
Exercise 8.42
A. Impossible, two same spin
B. Possible, ok
C. Impossible, three electrons in one orbit
D. Possible,
Exercise 8.43
A. Impossible, 1s isn’t full
B. Impossible, 3s only room for two electrons
C. Possible, ok
D. Possible, d can hold 10
Hund's rule is that you must fill each subshell with a positive ms value. This is because they have low energy and have to be placed into different orbital subshells.
An example of an orbital diagram that obeys the rule is one page 309. [Ar] electron configuration (valance shell) is 1s22p63s63p6. If you use the Hund’s rule you can abbreviate [Ar] 3d64s2 . This is because according to the rule, you can fill up each orbital with one electron (in the same spin). Instead of pairing on the electrons in the orbital, they can be separated out.
The Aufbau principle is the building of the ground state of the electron configuration by filling the orbitals in its electron configuration. For example, 3s has lower energy than 3p. The longer the electron configuration the higher the energy it will be (build up principle). Another example is 2p2 has less energy than 2p6.
On pg 309 Neon obeys the rules, and C and N does not. (I think)
C & N= Paramagnetic Neon = Diamagnetic (definitely)
Other
An orbital that has two electrons is more stable than an orbital that has one electron.
Are you enjoying my college 2410/2420 biology lecture and lab blog?
Saturday, November 21, 2009
Wednesday, October 21, 2009
Benzene (C6H6) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and liquid water. What is the heat released when 49.04 grams of benzene is combusted?
Benzene (C6H6) burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and liquid water. What is the heat released when 49.04 grams of benzene is combusted? The standard enthalpy of formation of benzene is 49.04 kJ/mol
-3268 kJ 1000 J 1 ev 1 amu 1.66054 x 10-27 1000 g
mol 1 kJ 1.60218 x 10-19 J 931.5 x 106 J 1 amu 1 kJ
= -1.14 x 10-28 grams
-3268 kJ 1000 J 1 ev 1 amu 1.66054 x 10-27 1000 g
mol 1 kJ 1.60218 x 10-19 J 931.5 x 106 J 1 amu 1 kJ
= -1.14 x 10-28 grams
Sunday, October 11, 2009
C A Vocab
Oviparous- animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other embryonic development within the mother
Viviparous- producing living young instead of eggs from within the body in the manner of nearly all mammals, many reptiles, and a few fishes
Ovoviviparous- producing eggs that develop within the maternal body and hatch within or immediately after extrusion from the parent
Ontogeny – changes in organism from zygote to death, although often focused on events from zygote to maturity.
Cleavage – a rapid series of cell divisions that follows fertilization and produces a multi-cellular blastula.
Blastocoel- the cavity of a blastula
Neurulation- an early vertebrate embryo which follows the gastrula and in which nervous tissue begins to differentiate and the basic pattern of the vertebrate begins to emerge
Trophoblast- the outer cellular layer of the mammalian blastocyst
Inner cell mass- the portion of the blastocyst of a mammalian embryo that is destined to become the embryo proper
Blastocyst- the mammalian blastula
Neural crest cells- migrate and ultimately differentiate into a wide variety of adult structures. The migrations begin cranially and gradually extend caudally. They are determined by both intrinsic properties of the neural crest cells and the features of the external environment encountered by the migrating cells - extracellular matrices and substrates.
Gastrula- an early metazoan embryo in which the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are established either by invagination of the blastula (as in fish and amphibians) to form a multilayered cellular cup with a blastopore opening into the archenteron or (as in reptiles, birds, and mammals) by differentiation of the upper layer of the blastodisc into the ectoderm and the lower layer into the endoderm and by the inward migration of cells through the primitive streak to form the mesoderm
Gastrocoele- ? rib-shaped dermal bones located in the abdominal region
Archenteron- the cavity of the gastrula of an embryo forming a primitive gut—called also gastrocoel
Chorion- the highly vascular outer embryonic membrane that is associated with the allantois in the formation of the placenta
Somites- ?
Allantois- a vascular fetal membrane of reptiles, birds, or mammals that is formed as a pouch from the hindgut and that in placental mammals is intimately associated with the chorion in formation of the placenta
Yolk Sac- a membranous sac of most vertebrates that is attached to an embryo and encloses the yolk, that is continuous in most forms including humans through the omphalomesenteric duct with the intestinal cavity of the embryo, that is abundantly supplied with blood vessels which transport nutritive yolk products to the developing embryo, and that in placental mammals is nearly vestigial and functions chiefly prior to the formation of the placenta
Blastopore- the opening into the primitive gut formed at gastrulation
Amnion- a saclike membrance that holds the develipoing embryo in a compartment of water
Coelom- the fluid filled body cavity formed within the mesoderm
transverse septum-
cleidoic egg- enclosed in a relatively impervious shell which reduces free exchange with the environment
Diaphragm- a body partition of muscle and connective tissue ; specifically : the partition separating the chest and abdominal cavities in mammals
Organogenesis- the origin and development of bodily organs
Holoblastic cleavage – early mitotic planes pass entirely through the cleaving embryo
Discoidal cleavage – early mitotic divisions restricted to the animal pole
Meroblastic- characterized by or being incomplete cleavage as a result of the presence of an impeding mass of yolk material (as in the eggs of birds)
Microlecithal- pertaining to eggs that contain small quantities of stored yolk
Mesolecithal- ?
Macrolecithal- ?
Epidermis – the skin layer over the dermis that is derived from ectoderm
Example: outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelium
Dermis - inner mesodermic layer of the skin, vascular
Example:
Sebaceous glands- any of the small sacculated glands lodged in the substance of the derma, usually opening into the hair follicles, and secreting an oily or greasy material composed in great part of fat which softens and lubricates the hair and skin
Sweat glands- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft
mammary- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft
hair - a slender threadlike outgrowth of the epidermis of an anima
nails- are made of keratin
Melanocytes - an epidermal cell that produces melanin
keratin –
Example: hair and nails
squamous epithelium- scale-like cells
stratum basale feathers –
claws-
Chromatophores- a pigment-bearing cell
Example: higher levels darker skin, lower levels whiter skin
Photophores- light-emitting organ which appears as luminous spots on various marine animals, including fish and cephalopods
Example: Firefly Squid, Pachystomias
Ectotherm- a cold-blooded animal
Endotherm- a warm-blooded animal
Poikilotherm- an organism (as a frog) with a variable body temperature that is usually slightly higher than the temperature of its environment : a cold-blooded organism—called also heterotherm
Horns-
Epidermal scales – scales are tough, shed
Example: reptiles, and exposed skin in birds
Ctenoid scales- toothed outer edge, and are usually found on more bony fish
Example: spiny fin rays, bass and the angel fish
Placoid scales- are found on cartilaginous fish
Example: sharks
Cycloid scales-
Example: flatfishes (flounders, fluke, soles)
Mucus glands-
Axial Skeleton - the skeleton of the trunk and head
appendicular skeleton- consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the limb
Neurocranium- the portion of the skull that encloses and protects the brain
Splanchnocranium- the portion of the skull that arises from the first three branchial arches and forms the supporting structure of the jaws
Dermatocranium- Bony parts of the skull derived from ossifications in the dermis of the skin
Hyaline cartilage- cartilage consisting of cells embedded in an apparently homogeneous matrix, present in joints and respiratory passages, and forming most of the fetal skeleton
Calcified cartilage- flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle
Fibrocartilage- cartilage in which the matrix except immediately about the cells is largely composed of fibers like those of ordinary connective tissue
Diaphysis- the shaft of a long bone
Epiphyses- an end of a long bone
Metaphysic- the transitional zone at which the diaphysis and epiphysis of a bone come together
Endochondral bone -relating to, formed by, or being ossification that takes place from centers arising in cartilage and involves deposition of lime salts in the cartilage matrix followed by secondary absorption and replacement by true bony tissue
membrane bone- a bone that ossifies directly in connective tissue without previous existence as cartilage
heterotopic bone- the percentage of osteoblasts is typically double that of normal bone
Example: formation of bone where it is not normally found, as in muscle
Blastema- a mass of living substance capable of growth and differentiation
Mesenchyme- loosely organized undifferentiated mesodermal cells that give rise to such structures as connective tissues, blood, lymphatics, bone, and cartilage
Chondrocytes- a cartilage cell
Chondroblast - a cell that produces cartilage
Osteocytes- a cell that is characteristic of adult bone and is isolated in a lacuna of the bone substance
osteoblast - a bone-forming cell
osteoclasts- bone cleaning cell
Compact bone - tightly packed tissue/bone
Spongy bone - tissue that makes up the interior of bones
Acellular bone- metabolically active tissue.
Example: Bone tissue in the Actinopterygii
Fontanels- a membrane-covered opening in bone or between bones
Example: any of the spaces closed by membranous structures between the uncompleted angles of the parietal bones and the neighboring bones of a fetal or young skull
Cranial kinesis- ??movement between the upper jaw and braincase
Cranial akinesis - ?skulls cannot perform the. actions of the kinetic skull
Sesamoid cartilages ?
Joints -
Sutures - a stitch used by doctors and surgeons to hold tissue together
Diarthrosis- a freely movable joint
Example: synovial joint
Synanthrosis- an immovable articulation in which the bones are united by intervening fibrous connective tissues
Amphiarthrosis- a slightly movable articulation
Synovial cartilaginous- stringy fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints
Fibrous joints- The fibrous joints are further divided into three types
Example: Sutures are found between bones of the skull. In fetal skulls the sutures are wide to allow slight movement during birth. They later become rigid synarthrodial
Hyostylic - mandibular arch attaches through the hyomandibula.
Craniostylic- incorporated into cranium, jaws (reduced to dentary alone) suspended directly from squamosal bone
Viviparous- producing living young instead of eggs from within the body in the manner of nearly all mammals, many reptiles, and a few fishes
Ovoviviparous- producing eggs that develop within the maternal body and hatch within or immediately after extrusion from the parent
Ontogeny – changes in organism from zygote to death, although often focused on events from zygote to maturity.
Cleavage – a rapid series of cell divisions that follows fertilization and produces a multi-cellular blastula.
Blastocoel- the cavity of a blastula
Neurulation- an early vertebrate embryo which follows the gastrula and in which nervous tissue begins to differentiate and the basic pattern of the vertebrate begins to emerge
Trophoblast- the outer cellular layer of the mammalian blastocyst
Inner cell mass- the portion of the blastocyst of a mammalian embryo that is destined to become the embryo proper
Blastocyst- the mammalian blastula
Neural crest cells- migrate and ultimately differentiate into a wide variety of adult structures. The migrations begin cranially and gradually extend caudally. They are determined by both intrinsic properties of the neural crest cells and the features of the external environment encountered by the migrating cells - extracellular matrices and substrates.
Gastrula- an early metazoan embryo in which the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm are established either by invagination of the blastula (as in fish and amphibians) to form a multilayered cellular cup with a blastopore opening into the archenteron or (as in reptiles, birds, and mammals) by differentiation of the upper layer of the blastodisc into the ectoderm and the lower layer into the endoderm and by the inward migration of cells through the primitive streak to form the mesoderm
Gastrocoele- ? rib-shaped dermal bones located in the abdominal region
Archenteron- the cavity of the gastrula of an embryo forming a primitive gut—called also gastrocoel
Chorion- the highly vascular outer embryonic membrane that is associated with the allantois in the formation of the placenta
Somites- ?
Allantois- a vascular fetal membrane of reptiles, birds, or mammals that is formed as a pouch from the hindgut and that in placental mammals is intimately associated with the chorion in formation of the placenta
Yolk Sac- a membranous sac of most vertebrates that is attached to an embryo and encloses the yolk, that is continuous in most forms including humans through the omphalomesenteric duct with the intestinal cavity of the embryo, that is abundantly supplied with blood vessels which transport nutritive yolk products to the developing embryo, and that in placental mammals is nearly vestigial and functions chiefly prior to the formation of the placenta
Blastopore- the opening into the primitive gut formed at gastrulation
Amnion- a saclike membrance that holds the develipoing embryo in a compartment of water
Coelom- the fluid filled body cavity formed within the mesoderm
transverse septum-
cleidoic egg- enclosed in a relatively impervious shell which reduces free exchange with the environment
Diaphragm- a body partition of muscle and connective tissue ; specifically : the partition separating the chest and abdominal cavities in mammals
Organogenesis- the origin and development of bodily organs
Holoblastic cleavage – early mitotic planes pass entirely through the cleaving embryo
Discoidal cleavage – early mitotic divisions restricted to the animal pole
Meroblastic- characterized by or being incomplete cleavage as a result of the presence of an impeding mass of yolk material (as in the eggs of birds)
Microlecithal- pertaining to eggs that contain small quantities of stored yolk
Mesolecithal- ?
Macrolecithal- ?
Epidermis – the skin layer over the dermis that is derived from ectoderm
Example: outer layer of the skin, composed of stratified squamous epithelium
Dermis - inner mesodermic layer of the skin, vascular
Example:
Sebaceous glands- any of the small sacculated glands lodged in the substance of the derma, usually opening into the hair follicles, and secreting an oily or greasy material composed in great part of fat which softens and lubricates the hair and skin
Sweat glands- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft
mammary- a simple tubular gland of the skin that secretes perspiration, in humans is widely distributed in nearly all parts of the skin, and consists typically of an epithelial tube extending spirally from a minute pore on the surface of the skin into the dermis or subcutaneous tissues where it ends in a convoluted tuft
hair - a slender threadlike outgrowth of the epidermis of an anima
nails- are made of keratin
Melanocytes - an epidermal cell that produces melanin
keratin –
Example: hair and nails
squamous epithelium- scale-like cells
stratum basale feathers –
claws-
Chromatophores- a pigment-bearing cell
Example: higher levels darker skin, lower levels whiter skin
Photophores- light-emitting organ which appears as luminous spots on various marine animals, including fish and cephalopods
Example: Firefly Squid, Pachystomias
Ectotherm- a cold-blooded animal
Endotherm- a warm-blooded animal
Poikilotherm- an organism (as a frog) with a variable body temperature that is usually slightly higher than the temperature of its environment : a cold-blooded organism—called also heterotherm
Horns-
Epidermal scales – scales are tough, shed
Example: reptiles, and exposed skin in birds
Ctenoid scales- toothed outer edge, and are usually found on more bony fish
Example: spiny fin rays, bass and the angel fish
Placoid scales- are found on cartilaginous fish
Example: sharks
Cycloid scales-
Example: flatfishes (flounders, fluke, soles)
Mucus glands-
Axial Skeleton - the skeleton of the trunk and head
appendicular skeleton- consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the limb
Neurocranium- the portion of the skull that encloses and protects the brain
Splanchnocranium- the portion of the skull that arises from the first three branchial arches and forms the supporting structure of the jaws
Dermatocranium- Bony parts of the skull derived from ossifications in the dermis of the skin
Hyaline cartilage- cartilage consisting of cells embedded in an apparently homogeneous matrix, present in joints and respiratory passages, and forming most of the fetal skeleton
Calcified cartilage- flexible connective tissue found in many areas in the bodies of humans and other animals, including the joints between bones, the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the elbow, the knee, the ankle, the bronchial tubes and the intervertebral discs. It is not as hard and rigid as bone but is stiffer and less flexible than muscle
Fibrocartilage- cartilage in which the matrix except immediately about the cells is largely composed of fibers like those of ordinary connective tissue
Diaphysis- the shaft of a long bone
Epiphyses- an end of a long bone
Metaphysic- the transitional zone at which the diaphysis and epiphysis of a bone come together
Endochondral bone -relating to, formed by, or being ossification that takes place from centers arising in cartilage and involves deposition of lime salts in the cartilage matrix followed by secondary absorption and replacement by true bony tissue
membrane bone- a bone that ossifies directly in connective tissue without previous existence as cartilage
heterotopic bone- the percentage of osteoblasts is typically double that of normal bone
Example: formation of bone where it is not normally found, as in muscle
Blastema- a mass of living substance capable of growth and differentiation
Mesenchyme- loosely organized undifferentiated mesodermal cells that give rise to such structures as connective tissues, blood, lymphatics, bone, and cartilage
Chondrocytes- a cartilage cell
Chondroblast - a cell that produces cartilage
Osteocytes- a cell that is characteristic of adult bone and is isolated in a lacuna of the bone substance
osteoblast - a bone-forming cell
osteoclasts- bone cleaning cell
Compact bone - tightly packed tissue/bone
Spongy bone - tissue that makes up the interior of bones
Acellular bone- metabolically active tissue.
Example: Bone tissue in the Actinopterygii
Fontanels- a membrane-covered opening in bone or between bones
Example: any of the spaces closed by membranous structures between the uncompleted angles of the parietal bones and the neighboring bones of a fetal or young skull
Cranial kinesis- ??movement between the upper jaw and braincase
Cranial akinesis - ?skulls cannot perform the. actions of the kinetic skull
Sesamoid cartilages ?
Joints -
Sutures - a stitch used by doctors and surgeons to hold tissue together
Diarthrosis- a freely movable joint
Example: synovial joint
Synanthrosis- an immovable articulation in which the bones are united by intervening fibrous connective tissues
Amphiarthrosis- a slightly movable articulation
Synovial cartilaginous- stringy fluid found in the cavities of synovial joints
Fibrous joints- The fibrous joints are further divided into three types
Example: Sutures are found between bones of the skull. In fetal skulls the sutures are wide to allow slight movement during birth. They later become rigid synarthrodial
Hyostylic - mandibular arch attaches through the hyomandibula.
Craniostylic- incorporated into cranium, jaws (reduced to dentary alone) suspended directly from squamosal bone
Friday, August 28, 2009
N/A
Cat dissection is biology laboratory.
Cat dissected, cat dissecting, science cat, class, lecture
Cat cut open
Cat, Science,
Pig dissection is biology laboratory.
pig dissected, pig dissecting, science pig, class, lecture
pig cut open
pig, Science,
Cat dissected, cat dissecting, science cat, class, lecture
Cat cut open
Cat, Science,
Pig dissection is biology laboratory.
pig dissected, pig dissecting, science pig, class, lecture
pig cut open
pig, Science,
Thursday, August 6, 2009
फेटल pig
Fetal Pig
Anterior – head
Dorsal – back
Ventral – belly
Median – a plane passing though the middle (right and left)
Posterior – hind end
Distal -
Proximal –
All visible without dissection –
Eyes, Ears, Nose, External Nares, External Ear, Wrist, Digit (fingers), Anterior wall of body (middle belly), elbow, umbilical cord, knee, Posterior Wall of body cavity, Ankle, Anus, Tail,
Mouth - 3 Pairs of Glands – SALIVARY, PARTOID, SUBMAXILLARY, SUBLINGUAL - Produce AMYLASE
Hard Plate – bone covered with mucous membrane
Soft Palate- continuation of soft tissue covering the hard plate
Pharynx – end of oral cavity, base of tounge, to the STOMACH
Trachea – WIND PIPE
Alimentary Canal..(aka Digestive system) –
Mesenteries – suspend and support internal organs in the body cavity
Gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver, bile travels via a duct to small intestine
Stomach – under the liver,
Gastric glands in the stomach secrete – PEPSINOGEN, HYDROCHLORIC ACID, AND RENNIN (food is now called CHYME)
Small Intestine – DUODENUM (1st part) JEJUNUM (2nd part) ILEUM (3rd part)
Contain VILLI, covered with MUCOSA
Two types of cells – GOBLET CELLS (secrete mucus), COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS (absorption)
Pancreas – secretes several enzymes that digest carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid, (found btw curve of the stomach and duodenum)
Skin – 3 layers epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
In terms of chemical composition, the skin is about 70% water, 25% protein and 2% lipids.
Anterior – head
Dorsal – back
Ventral – belly
Median – a plane passing though the middle (right and left)
Posterior – hind end
Distal -
Proximal –
All visible without dissection –
Eyes, Ears, Nose, External Nares, External Ear, Wrist, Digit (fingers), Anterior wall of body (middle belly), elbow, umbilical cord, knee, Posterior Wall of body cavity, Ankle, Anus, Tail,
Mouth - 3 Pairs of Glands – SALIVARY, PARTOID, SUBMAXILLARY, SUBLINGUAL - Produce AMYLASE
Hard Plate – bone covered with mucous membrane
Soft Palate- continuation of soft tissue covering the hard plate
Pharynx – end of oral cavity, base of tounge, to the STOMACH
Trachea – WIND PIPE
Alimentary Canal..(aka Digestive system) –
Mesenteries – suspend and support internal organs in the body cavity
Gallbladder – stores bile produced by the liver, bile travels via a duct to small intestine
Stomach – under the liver,
Gastric glands in the stomach secrete – PEPSINOGEN, HYDROCHLORIC ACID, AND RENNIN (food is now called CHYME)
Small Intestine – DUODENUM (1st part) JEJUNUM (2nd part) ILEUM (3rd part)
Contain VILLI, covered with MUCOSA
Two types of cells – GOBLET CELLS (secrete mucus), COLUMNAR EPITHELIAL CELLS (absorption)
Pancreas – secretes several enzymes that digest carbs, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acid, (found btw curve of the stomach and duodenum)
Skin – 3 layers epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous tissue.
In terms of chemical composition, the skin is about 70% water, 25% protein and 2% lipids.
Endocrine System
Endocrine System – all organs that tissues that produce hormones
Endocrine / Exocrine Glands
Hormone – chemical that is secreted into extracelluar fluid and carried by the blood
Act as a distance from the source
Only target with a receptor
Paracrine Regulators – DO NO TRAVEL IN BLOOD, allows cells of organs to related to each other
Pheromones – chemical released into the air (environment) to communicate among people
Neurohormones – i.e. norepinephrine – heart, liver, blood vessels during stress
Directly or Indirectly – hormones are released by the nervous system
Classes of Hormones
1. Peptides and Proteins – glycoproteins
2. Amino Acid Derivatives - TYROSINE
a. Catecholamines
b. Thyroid Hormones (tyrosine, T3, and T4, trioidothyronine)
c. Melatonin
i. Epinephrine and norepinhrine
3. Steroids
a. Sex steroids
b. Corticosteroids
EITHER Hormones are
1. Lipophilic – fat-soluble, NO POLAR
a. Steroids, thyroid hormones (tyrosine, and iodine)
b. Intra – cellular receptors
c. Derived from Cholesterol
d. Retinoids / VITAMIN A
2. Hydrophilic- water loving, POLAR
Endocrine Action – controls physiology with chemical signals from one part of the body to another, target cell undergoes a biological response.
Endocrine – born via bloodstream
Paracrine – close to local environment
Autocrine – acting on secreting cell
Neurocrine – neural cells that release chemical signals into bloodstream
Hypothalamus – releasing hormones
Tropic (stimulating) hormones – from pituitary to act on another endocrine gland
Non Tropic Hormones – from an endocrine gland to target cells
All cells respond to multiple hormones, hormones via receptors, receptors either at cell surface or intracellular
Paracrine Regulators – occurs in most organs,
1. Growth Factors – promote growth and cell division
a. Epidermal growth factor – skin
b. Nerve – nerve
c. Insulin-like growth factors – BONE
d. Cytokines – Immune System
2. Endothelium – rich source of paracrine regulators
a. Nitric Oxide (NO)
b. Endothelin – vasoconstriction
c. Bradykinin – vasodilation
3. Prostaglandins -diverse group of fatty acids that are produced almost in all organs
a. Regulates – smooth muscle, blood vessels, dilation,
b. NONSTEROIDAL ANTI INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
c. Immune system
d. Reproductive
e. Digestive
f. Circulatory
g. Urinary
h. Respiration
Receptor Kinases – for some peptide hormones ( like insulin) the receptor itself is a kinase (enzyme)
Other peptide hormones (like growth hormones) the receptor is NOT A KINASE, but rather is activates INTRACELLULAR Kinases
Hydrophilic Hormones- linked to second messenger protein called G PROTEINS (increase the second messenger molecules)
Second Messenger Stystems – many cAMP, DAG, IP3 ,
Lipophlic Hormones – pass thought the target cell’s plasma membrane and binds to intracellular receptor proteins, then binds to parts of the DNA, activates genes and regulates target cells
Peptides and Glycoproteins – too large to enter cell membrane (non, epe)
Binds to receptor located on the outer surface of the plasma membrane
Major Endocrine Glands –
a. Hypothalamus g. Adrenal Medulla
b. Anterior Pituitary h. Adrenal Cortex
c. Posterior Pituitary i. Pancreas
d. Pineal j. Ovaries
e. Thyroid k. Testes
f. Parathyroids l. Placenta
Pituitary Gland (aka hypophysis) – hangs from the hypothalamus
a. Anterior Pituitary – glandular, TROPIC HORMONES or TROPINS
a. Peptide Hormones, Protein Hormones , Glycoprotein hormones
i. Produces GROWTH HORMONES -muscles and bones
ii. OTHER??????
iii. Direct or indirect
iv. Releasing hormomes and inhibiting hormones,
v. HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSIAL PORTAL SYTSEM
vi. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK or FEEDBACK INHIBITION
vii. Dwarfism, gigantism
b. Posterior Pituitary – fiberous, comes from brain, directly connected to hypothalamus by tract of axons
i. Stores and releases two hormones that are produced by cell bodies in the hypothalamus
ii. NEURENDOCRINE RELEX
iii. Anitdiuretic hormones (ADH) – urine production
iv. Oxytocin- like ADH – 9 amino acids – reproductive behavior
Thyroid – behind the Adam’s apple (front of neck), promote growth in kids, maturation of central nerous system, binds to nuclear receptors, regulated carbs and lipid breakdown,
THYROID HORMONES
a. THYROXINE – set basal metabolic rate, HIGH AND LOW –HYPO-HYPER
b. Triiodothryonine
c. Calcitonin
a. A peptide hormone
b. Helps with the uptake of CALCIUM IONS INTO BONES
Parathroid Gland – 4 small glands attached to thyroid
Produce–PARATHYOID HORONE (PTH) because of FALLING CA2+ in blood
Activation of Vitamin D
PTH – sunlight VITAMIN D
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
Adrenal Gland –above the kidneys,
INNER –Adrenal Medulla
SECRETES EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE (help!!! alarm cells)
OUTER – Adrenal Cortex
Corticosteriods- hormones from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) reabsord Na and excrete K
Anterior pituitary – with hormone ACTH
Pancreas – next to stomach, connected to the duodenum of the small intestine
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS – SCATTERED CLUSTERS OF CELLS THROUGHOUT THE PANCREAS
ISLETS – B cells of islet secrete INSULIN (lowers glucose)
A cells of islet secrete GLUCAGON (raised glucose)
Promotes the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and fat in adipose
Endocrine / Exocrine Glands
Hormone – chemical that is secreted into extracelluar fluid and carried by the blood
Act as a distance from the source
Only target with a receptor
Paracrine Regulators – DO NO TRAVEL IN BLOOD, allows cells of organs to related to each other
Pheromones – chemical released into the air (environment) to communicate among people
Neurohormones – i.e. norepinephrine – heart, liver, blood vessels during stress
Directly or Indirectly – hormones are released by the nervous system
Classes of Hormones
1. Peptides and Proteins – glycoproteins
2. Amino Acid Derivatives - TYROSINE
a. Catecholamines
b. Thyroid Hormones (tyrosine, T3, and T4, trioidothyronine)
c. Melatonin
i. Epinephrine and norepinhrine
3. Steroids
a. Sex steroids
b. Corticosteroids
EITHER Hormones are
1. Lipophilic – fat-soluble, NO POLAR
a. Steroids, thyroid hormones (tyrosine, and iodine)
b. Intra – cellular receptors
c. Derived from Cholesterol
d. Retinoids / VITAMIN A
2. Hydrophilic- water loving, POLAR
Endocrine Action – controls physiology with chemical signals from one part of the body to another, target cell undergoes a biological response.
Endocrine – born via bloodstream
Paracrine – close to local environment
Autocrine – acting on secreting cell
Neurocrine – neural cells that release chemical signals into bloodstream
Hypothalamus – releasing hormones
Tropic (stimulating) hormones – from pituitary to act on another endocrine gland
Non Tropic Hormones – from an endocrine gland to target cells
All cells respond to multiple hormones, hormones via receptors, receptors either at cell surface or intracellular
Paracrine Regulators – occurs in most organs,
1. Growth Factors – promote growth and cell division
a. Epidermal growth factor – skin
b. Nerve – nerve
c. Insulin-like growth factors – BONE
d. Cytokines – Immune System
2. Endothelium – rich source of paracrine regulators
a. Nitric Oxide (NO)
b. Endothelin – vasoconstriction
c. Bradykinin – vasodilation
3. Prostaglandins -diverse group of fatty acids that are produced almost in all organs
a. Regulates – smooth muscle, blood vessels, dilation,
b. NONSTEROIDAL ANTI INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
c. Immune system
d. Reproductive
e. Digestive
f. Circulatory
g. Urinary
h. Respiration
Receptor Kinases – for some peptide hormones ( like insulin) the receptor itself is a kinase (enzyme)
Other peptide hormones (like growth hormones) the receptor is NOT A KINASE, but rather is activates INTRACELLULAR Kinases
Hydrophilic Hormones- linked to second messenger protein called G PROTEINS (increase the second messenger molecules)
Second Messenger Stystems – many cAMP, DAG, IP3 ,
Lipophlic Hormones – pass thought the target cell’s plasma membrane and binds to intracellular receptor proteins, then binds to parts of the DNA, activates genes and regulates target cells
Peptides and Glycoproteins – too large to enter cell membrane (non, epe)
Binds to receptor located on the outer surface of the plasma membrane
Major Endocrine Glands –
a. Hypothalamus g. Adrenal Medulla
b. Anterior Pituitary h. Adrenal Cortex
c. Posterior Pituitary i. Pancreas
d. Pineal j. Ovaries
e. Thyroid k. Testes
f. Parathyroids l. Placenta
Pituitary Gland (aka hypophysis) – hangs from the hypothalamus
a. Anterior Pituitary – glandular, TROPIC HORMONES or TROPINS
a. Peptide Hormones, Protein Hormones , Glycoprotein hormones
i. Produces GROWTH HORMONES -muscles and bones
ii. OTHER??????
iii. Direct or indirect
iv. Releasing hormomes and inhibiting hormones,
v. HYPOTHALAMOHYPOPHYSIAL PORTAL SYTSEM
vi. NEGATIVE FEEDBACK or FEEDBACK INHIBITION
vii. Dwarfism, gigantism
b. Posterior Pituitary – fiberous, comes from brain, directly connected to hypothalamus by tract of axons
i. Stores and releases two hormones that are produced by cell bodies in the hypothalamus
ii. NEURENDOCRINE RELEX
iii. Anitdiuretic hormones (ADH) – urine production
iv. Oxytocin- like ADH – 9 amino acids – reproductive behavior
Thyroid – behind the Adam’s apple (front of neck), promote growth in kids, maturation of central nerous system, binds to nuclear receptors, regulated carbs and lipid breakdown,
THYROID HORMONES
a. THYROXINE – set basal metabolic rate, HIGH AND LOW –HYPO-HYPER
b. Triiodothryonine
c. Calcitonin
a. A peptide hormone
b. Helps with the uptake of CALCIUM IONS INTO BONES
Parathroid Gland – 4 small glands attached to thyroid
Produce–PARATHYOID HORONE (PTH) because of FALLING CA2+ in blood
Activation of Vitamin D
PTH – sunlight VITAMIN D
CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS
Adrenal Gland –above the kidneys,
INNER –Adrenal Medulla
SECRETES EPINEPHRINE & NOREPINEPHRINE (help!!! alarm cells)
OUTER – Adrenal Cortex
Corticosteriods- hormones from the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids (cortisol)
Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) reabsord Na and excrete K
Anterior pituitary – with hormone ACTH
Pancreas – next to stomach, connected to the duodenum of the small intestine
ISLETS OF LANGERHANS – SCATTERED CLUSTERS OF CELLS THROUGHOUT THE PANCREAS
ISLETS – B cells of islet secrete INSULIN (lowers glucose)
A cells of islet secrete GLUCAGON (raised glucose)
Promotes the hydrolysis of glycogen in the liver and fat in adipose
Heart
Circulatory System
Pulmonary Arteries – transport blood to lungs
Pulmonary Veins – transport oxygenated blood to heart
Aortic arch and trunk – main arteries from the heart
Common carotid artery – carries blood to brain
Renal vein and artery – connected to kidneys
Mesenteric Veins – connects to intestines
Arteries – away from heart ( A – AWAY)
Views – back to heart (deoxygenized)
Pulmonary circulation – move btw heart and lungs
Systemic circulation – moves blood btw heart and rest of the body
The Heart
Aorta – major artery of the systematic circulation, carries oxygen rich blood from the LEFT ventricle to all parts of the body
Coronary Arteries – supply heart itself
Superior Vena Cava – drains UPPER body
Inferior Vena Cava – drains LOWER body
Atrium – 2 parts (causes no blood to mix)
Right – deoxygenated blood from systematic circulation
Left – oxygenated blood from the lungs
Heart Values (2 pairs)
1. ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV value)
a. Guards the openings btw atria and ventricles
i. Right side - TRICUSPID VALUE
ii. Left side – BICUSPID,(aka) MITRAL VALVE
2. SEMILUNAR VALUES – out of the artery system
a. Right – PULMONARY VALUE
b. Left – AORTIC VALUE
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Diastole – relaxing state
Systole – slight delayed relaxing state (contracted)
BLOOD PRESSURE (sphygmomanometer) – SYSTOLIC / DIASTOLIC ratio
Pulmonary Arteries – deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the R and L lungs
Pulmonary Veins – return rich oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
Contraction of the Heart
Stimulated by membrane depolarization
Caused by SA NODE (sinoatrial node)***most important autorthymic fibers**
Autorthymic fibers – SA NODE ( sinoartial node) located in the right atrium, acts as the PACEMAKER for the rest of the heart, SPONTANEOUS ACTION POTENTIALS faster than other cells, WITHOUT NEURAL ACTIVATION
ATRIOVENTRICULAR – AV NODE, depolarization travels quickly over both ventriles by a network of fibers called the ATRIOVENTRICULAR bundle, aka (BUNDLE OF HIS)---information then relayed to PURKINJE FIBERS
PURKINJE FIBERS – directly stimulate the myocardial cells of the left and right ventricles causing the contraction
Blood Vessels
Arterioles – finest, microscopic branches of the arterial tree
Capillaries – blood from arterioles
Venules – blood is collected which leads to large vessesls *VEINS (back to heart)
Arteries & Veins – MADE UP OF:
**Endothemlium, Elastic Fibers, Smooth Muscle, Connective Tissue**
Capillaries – MADE UP OF:
One layer of endothemlium – allows rapid exchange of gases and metabolites btw blood and body cells
Arteries and arterioles- MADE UP OF:
Smooth muscle layer resulting in VASOCONSTRICTION, which increases resistance and decreases blood flow (hypertension and blood pressure)
***Vasoconstriction – contraction of smooth muscle layer, increased resistance and decrease flow
***Vasodilation – relaxing smooth muscle layer – decreasing resistance and increasing flow
Veins and Vensules – MADE UP OF:
Thinnest layer of smooth muscle (smoother muscle than arteries), work with skeletal muscles, ONE WAY contraction called VENOUS VALVES
Venous valves – moves blood one way
Lymphtatic System MADE UP OF:
Lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lympth nodes, and lymphatic organs
Lymph – one way values, drains into subclavian veins
Lymph Nodes – contain GERMINAL CENTER (lymphocyte activation)
Heart Diseases
Heart Attack – MYOCARDIAL INFRACTION, lack of blood to heart, #1
Atherosclerosis – fatty material in the arteries
Arteriosclerosis – artery hard due to calcium deposition
Athersclerotic Lesions – many issues!!
Angina Pectoris – CHEST PAIN
Stroke – interference with blood supply to BRAIN
Blood Pressure / Flow
AUTONOMIC NERVES SYSTEM
Medulla Oblongata – controls Heart Rate
Norepinephrine - SYMPATHETIC neurons, **increase heart rate
Acetylcholine – PARASYMPATHERTIC neurons, **decrease heart rate
Baroreceptor Reflex – NEGATIVE feed back loop that controls response to changes in blood pressure , detect change in arterial blood pressure
??????????
Blood Volume is regulated by 4 HORMONES (Blood pressure goes with blood volume)
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONES (ADH)
ALDOSTERONE
ATRIAL NATRIURETIC HORMONE
NITRIC OXIDE (NO)
Cardiac Output – volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per min
BP=CO x R
Blood pressure = (cardiac output)(resistance to blood flow)
Blood
Connective tissue, contains plasma, formed elements
Functions –
Transportation - materials (vitamins)
Regulation – body functions (urine)
Protection – injury (white blood cells, protects)
Plasma – made up of 92% WATER…also contains….
1. Nuterients, wastes, hormones
2. Ions
3. Proteins
a. Albumin- (alpha and beta globulins)
b. Fibrinogen -(if removed, called SERUM)
4. Red blood cells – ERYTHROCYTES (about 5 millon per MCL)
a. Hematocrit –fraction of the total blood volume occupied by red blood cells
5. Hemoglobin – pigment that binds and transport oxygen
6. White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
a. Less than 1% of blood
i. Larger than erythrocytes
ii. Can migrate out of capillaries
iii. GRANULAR – neutrophils, eosinophils, and baso phils
iv. ANGRANULAR – monocytes and lumphocytes
7. Platelets – pinch off from larger cells in bone marrow, blood clots
**ALL the formed elements of blood comes from PLURIPTENT STEM CELLS**
HEMOGLOBIN -
Effected by pH and temp (BOHR SHIFT)
Causes H+ bind to hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha helix and 2 B)
HEME – central iron atom that can bind to O2
OXYHEMOGLOBIN – loaded with O2, some molecules lose O2 causing DEOXYHEMGLOBIN
8% - of CO2 is dissolved in plasma
20% - bound to hemoglobin
72% - diffuse into red blood cells
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE (CO2 & H20= forms H2CO3)
Respiration
*works with the cardiovascular system to exchange gases btw the air and blood (external respiration) and btw blood tissue and fluid (internal respiration) * cellular respiration is the final destination where ATP is produced.
Fick’s law of diffusion – rate of diffusion btw two regions
R=DA(PIE)P / d
Gas Exchange – driven by differences in partial pressures GRADIENTS OF O2 AND CO2, ventilation perfusion mismatch
ALVEOLI – sites of gas exchange – surrounded by lots of capillaries, MILLIONS,
AIR –
1. Larynx – inhaled air passes through first then…Glottis, and trachea
2. Right and Left BRONCHI
3. BRONCHILOES – surround by capillary network
Tidal Volume – at rest
Vital capacity – max air expired
Hypoventilation – lack of breathing, HIGH PCO2 (partial pressure of co2)
Hyperventialation – excess breathing, LOW PCO2
Lungs- MEDULLA OBLONGATA **control center**
THORACIC CAVITY
Branched tubular passage, 2 way
Each covered with VISCERAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE
PARIETAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE –lungs INNER wall lined
PLEURAL CAVITY – SPACE BTW MEMBRANES
MEDULLA OBLONGATA – controls breathing
Neurons stop producing impulses , relaxed exhalation occure
NEURONS ARE SENSITIVE TO PARTIAL CHANGE IN CO2
More CO2, increases CARBONIC ACID, lowing pH
Chemosensitive Neurons
AROTIC
CAROTID BODIES
During inhalations two muscles contact
Intercostal Muscles- expand the rib cage
Diaphram- expands volume of thorax and lungs (NEGATIVE PRESSURE)
Elastic Tension- caused by breathing – Thorax , Lungs
EXPIRATION
Exhale
PASSIVE
Can become active
Uses internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
ELASTIC RECOIL
Alveoli stretch, STRETCH RECEPTORS than inhibit respiratory center
Air goes downward because of gravity
Partial Pressure????
INSPIRATION
Inhale
ACTIVE
Medulla Oblongata – causes rib cage to rise and diaphragm to lower, expansion
Negative Pressure – aka parial vacuum in alveoli causes air to come in
Increases CO+ and H+ in blood
ALVEOLAR MEMBERAN
SURFACTANT & WATER LAYER
Simple Squamous epithelium
Basement membrane of wall ??
Interstitial Space
Capillary Wall – simple SE
Basement membrane of cap wall
Pulmonary Ventilation – BREATHING, in and out of lungs, nasal breathing (cleans), PLEURAL SACS suspend the lungs from the thorax and contain fluid to prevent friction against thoracic cage , controlled by brain stem, sends impulses, CHEMORECEPORERS,
Pulmonary Diffusion – Oxygen rate a which it diffuses from alveoli into blood **OXYGEN DIFFUSION CAPACITY**
Trained – athletes, male, female?
**CARBON DIOXIDE’S MEMBRANE IS 20 TIMES GREATER THAN THAT OF OXYGEN, C02 DIFFUSES MORE QUICKLY**
GOAL OF RESPIRATION – maintain blood, tissue gases, pH to normal levels
Pulmonary Arteries – transport blood to lungs
Pulmonary Veins – transport oxygenated blood to heart
Aortic arch and trunk – main arteries from the heart
Common carotid artery – carries blood to brain
Renal vein and artery – connected to kidneys
Mesenteric Veins – connects to intestines
Arteries – away from heart ( A – AWAY)
Views – back to heart (deoxygenized)
Pulmonary circulation – move btw heart and lungs
Systemic circulation – moves blood btw heart and rest of the body
The Heart
Aorta – major artery of the systematic circulation, carries oxygen rich blood from the LEFT ventricle to all parts of the body
Coronary Arteries – supply heart itself
Superior Vena Cava – drains UPPER body
Inferior Vena Cava – drains LOWER body
Atrium – 2 parts (causes no blood to mix)
Right – deoxygenated blood from systematic circulation
Left – oxygenated blood from the lungs
Heart Values (2 pairs)
1. ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV value)
a. Guards the openings btw atria and ventricles
i. Right side - TRICUSPID VALUE
ii. Left side – BICUSPID,(aka) MITRAL VALVE
2. SEMILUNAR VALUES – out of the artery system
a. Right – PULMONARY VALUE
b. Left – AORTIC VALUE
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Diastole – relaxing state
Systole – slight delayed relaxing state (contracted)
BLOOD PRESSURE (sphygmomanometer) – SYSTOLIC / DIASTOLIC ratio
Pulmonary Arteries – deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the R and L lungs
Pulmonary Veins – return rich oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
Contraction of the Heart
Stimulated by membrane depolarization
Caused by SA NODE (sinoatrial node)***most important autorthymic fibers**
Autorthymic fibers – SA NODE ( sinoartial node) located in the right atrium, acts as the PACEMAKER for the rest of the heart, SPONTANEOUS ACTION POTENTIALS faster than other cells, WITHOUT NEURAL ACTIVATION
ATRIOVENTRICULAR – AV NODE, depolarization travels quickly over both ventriles by a network of fibers called the ATRIOVENTRICULAR bundle, aka (BUNDLE OF HIS)---information then relayed to PURKINJE FIBERS
PURKINJE FIBERS – directly stimulate the myocardial cells of the left and right ventricles causing the contraction
Blood Vessels
Arterioles – finest, microscopic branches of the arterial tree
Capillaries – blood from arterioles
Venules – blood is collected which leads to large vessesls *VEINS (back to heart)
Arteries & Veins – MADE UP OF:
**Endothemlium, Elastic Fibers, Smooth Muscle, Connective Tissue**
Capillaries – MADE UP OF:
One layer of endothemlium – allows rapid exchange of gases and metabolites btw blood and body cells
Arteries and arterioles- MADE UP OF:
Smooth muscle layer resulting in VASOCONSTRICTION, which increases resistance and decreases blood flow (hypertension and blood pressure)
***Vasoconstriction – contraction of smooth muscle layer, increased resistance and decrease flow
***Vasodilation – relaxing smooth muscle layer – decreasing resistance and increasing flow
Veins and Vensules – MADE UP OF:
Thinnest layer of smooth muscle (smoother muscle than arteries), work with skeletal muscles, ONE WAY contraction called VENOUS VALVES
Venous valves – moves blood one way
Lymphtatic System MADE UP OF:
Lymphatic capillaries, lymphatic vessels, lympth nodes, and lymphatic organs
Lymph – one way values, drains into subclavian veins
Lymph Nodes – contain GERMINAL CENTER (lymphocyte activation)
Heart Diseases
Heart Attack – MYOCARDIAL INFRACTION, lack of blood to heart, #1
Atherosclerosis – fatty material in the arteries
Arteriosclerosis – artery hard due to calcium deposition
Athersclerotic Lesions – many issues!!
Angina Pectoris – CHEST PAIN
Stroke – interference with blood supply to BRAIN
Blood Pressure / Flow
AUTONOMIC NERVES SYSTEM
Medulla Oblongata – controls Heart Rate
Norepinephrine - SYMPATHETIC neurons, **increase heart rate
Acetylcholine – PARASYMPATHERTIC neurons, **decrease heart rate
Baroreceptor Reflex – NEGATIVE feed back loop that controls response to changes in blood pressure , detect change in arterial blood pressure
??????????
Blood Volume is regulated by 4 HORMONES (Blood pressure goes with blood volume)
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONES (ADH)
ALDOSTERONE
ATRIAL NATRIURETIC HORMONE
NITRIC OXIDE (NO)
Cardiac Output – volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per min
BP=CO x R
Blood pressure = (cardiac output)(resistance to blood flow)
Blood
Connective tissue, contains plasma, formed elements
Functions –
Transportation - materials (vitamins)
Regulation – body functions (urine)
Protection – injury (white blood cells, protects)
Plasma – made up of 92% WATER…also contains….
1. Nuterients, wastes, hormones
2. Ions
3. Proteins
a. Albumin- (alpha and beta globulins)
b. Fibrinogen -(if removed, called SERUM)
4. Red blood cells – ERYTHROCYTES (about 5 millon per MCL)
a. Hematocrit –fraction of the total blood volume occupied by red blood cells
5. Hemoglobin – pigment that binds and transport oxygen
6. White Blood Cells (leukocytes)
a. Less than 1% of blood
i. Larger than erythrocytes
ii. Can migrate out of capillaries
iii. GRANULAR – neutrophils, eosinophils, and baso phils
iv. ANGRANULAR – monocytes and lumphocytes
7. Platelets – pinch off from larger cells in bone marrow, blood clots
**ALL the formed elements of blood comes from PLURIPTENT STEM CELLS**
HEMOGLOBIN -
Effected by pH and temp (BOHR SHIFT)
Causes H+ bind to hemoglobin
4 polypeptide chains (2 alpha helix and 2 B)
HEME – central iron atom that can bind to O2
OXYHEMOGLOBIN – loaded with O2, some molecules lose O2 causing DEOXYHEMGLOBIN
8% - of CO2 is dissolved in plasma
20% - bound to hemoglobin
72% - diffuse into red blood cells
CARBONIC ANHYDRASE (CO2 & H20= forms H2CO3)
Respiration
*works with the cardiovascular system to exchange gases btw the air and blood (external respiration) and btw blood tissue and fluid (internal respiration) * cellular respiration is the final destination where ATP is produced.
Fick’s law of diffusion – rate of diffusion btw two regions
R=DA(PIE)P / d
Gas Exchange – driven by differences in partial pressures GRADIENTS OF O2 AND CO2, ventilation perfusion mismatch
ALVEOLI – sites of gas exchange – surrounded by lots of capillaries, MILLIONS,
AIR –
1. Larynx – inhaled air passes through first then…Glottis, and trachea
2. Right and Left BRONCHI
3. BRONCHILOES – surround by capillary network
Tidal Volume – at rest
Vital capacity – max air expired
Hypoventilation – lack of breathing, HIGH PCO2 (partial pressure of co2)
Hyperventialation – excess breathing, LOW PCO2
Lungs- MEDULLA OBLONGATA **control center**
THORACIC CAVITY
Branched tubular passage, 2 way
Each covered with VISCERAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE
PARIETAL PLEURAL MEMBRANE –lungs INNER wall lined
PLEURAL CAVITY – SPACE BTW MEMBRANES
MEDULLA OBLONGATA – controls breathing
Neurons stop producing impulses , relaxed exhalation occure
NEURONS ARE SENSITIVE TO PARTIAL CHANGE IN CO2
More CO2, increases CARBONIC ACID, lowing pH
Chemosensitive Neurons
AROTIC
CAROTID BODIES
During inhalations two muscles contact
Intercostal Muscles- expand the rib cage
Diaphram- expands volume of thorax and lungs (NEGATIVE PRESSURE)
Elastic Tension- caused by breathing – Thorax , Lungs
EXPIRATION
Exhale
PASSIVE
Can become active
Uses internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
ELASTIC RECOIL
Alveoli stretch, STRETCH RECEPTORS than inhibit respiratory center
Air goes downward because of gravity
Partial Pressure????
INSPIRATION
Inhale
ACTIVE
Medulla Oblongata – causes rib cage to rise and diaphragm to lower, expansion
Negative Pressure – aka parial vacuum in alveoli causes air to come in
Increases CO+ and H+ in blood
ALVEOLAR MEMBERAN
SURFACTANT & WATER LAYER
Simple Squamous epithelium
Basement membrane of wall ??
Interstitial Space
Capillary Wall – simple SE
Basement membrane of cap wall
Pulmonary Ventilation – BREATHING, in and out of lungs, nasal breathing (cleans), PLEURAL SACS suspend the lungs from the thorax and contain fluid to prevent friction against thoracic cage , controlled by brain stem, sends impulses, CHEMORECEPORERS,
Pulmonary Diffusion – Oxygen rate a which it diffuses from alveoli into blood **OXYGEN DIFFUSION CAPACITY**
Trained – athletes, male, female?
**CARBON DIOXIDE’S MEMBRANE IS 20 TIMES GREATER THAN THAT OF OXYGEN, C02 DIFFUSES MORE QUICKLY**
GOAL OF RESPIRATION – maintain blood, tissue gases, pH to normal levels
CNS
SESORY RECEPTORS – DETECTS STIMULUS
MOTOR EFFECTORS – RESPOND STIMULUS
NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS MAKE UP NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sensory Neurons – afferent – carries to CNS
Motor Neurons – Efferent - from impulses to CNS to muscles and glands
Interneurons – Association – reflexes, learning and memory
Glial Cells – NOT involved in signal processing
8 roles
1. static support of neurons
2. insulation of nerve cell – OLIGODENDROCYTES – SCHWANN
3. removal of debribs after injury of the cell dies
4. take up of chemical transmitter
5. migration and growth of axon development
6. PRE-SYNAPTIC TERMINAL
7. blood brain barriers – ASTROCYTES
8. growth hormones and food for nerve cell
OLIGODENDROCYTES(CNS) – SCHWANN (PNS) – Myelsin Sheaths
Nerve Cells – also called neurons
Cell Body – soma – metabolic center
Dendrites – imput from other neurons
Axons – ONLY OUT PUT – output = action potential = transient. Action potential is triggered at the axon HILLOCK and travels 1 – 100 ms-1
Pre-Synaptic terminals – release chemical transmitter
NEURONS –
Cell Body , Axons, supporting cells ( neuroglia ) , Oligodendrites (CNS)
Dendrties , Schwann Cells (PNS) myelinated , Nodes of Ranvier
Axons – away from cell body
Smooth surface
Only 1 axon per cell
NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES
MYELIN
Branches further for the cell body
Dendrites – to cell body
Rough Surface (dendritic spines)
Many dendrites per cell
RIBOSOMES
NO MYELIN NO MYELIN NO MYELIN
Branch near cell body
Basic Info
IONS – CHARGED PARTICLES
ANIONS – ------- (NEGATIVE PARTICLES) ---------
CATIONS - ++++ (POSITIVE PARTICLES) ++++++
Ionic movement is caused by
1. Electrostatic Forces (+ attracts, same charge repel)
2. Concentration Forces (diffusion – movement of ions) and (osmosis)
3. Hydrostatics Forces – gravity forces upon osmosis
Permeability
1. Neuronal Membranes
2. Hydrophobic Lipid Bi-Layer
3. Gated Ion Channels
4. Non-gated Ion Channels
Resting membrane Potential
One positive pole – side exposed to extra-cellar fluid
One Negative pole –side exposed to cytoplasm
NOT Being stimulated – resting membrane potential (avg testing of -70(mV)
****Inside of cell is positively charged because of Sodium-potassium pump and Ion leakage channels ***
Resting membrane Potential
Sodium-potassium pump – every 3 Na+ (sodium ions) pumped out brings in 2 potassium ions (K+) – concentration gradient = high K+, low Na+ inside the cell and High Na+ and low K+ concentrations outside the cell
Ion leakage channels – leaks more K+ than Na+
-70 – 30 --------RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Graded Potentials
The response to stimuli
Dendrites and cell body
Different gradations
Decremental Conduction - the further they must travel the weaker they become
EXCITATORY OR INHIBITORY
Synaptic Integration
Spatial Summation – many dendrites produce EPSPs
EPSPs - excitatory postsynaptic potential
Temporal Summation
Structure of Synapses
Intercellular junctions
Synaptic Cleft –
Receiving cell – POST SYNAPTIC
Presnaptic axon – contain neurotransmitters
Diffuse rapidly to the other side of the cleft, bind to the receptor proteins in the membrane of the POSTsynaptic cell
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine – neuron and skeletal muscle
Glumate – MAJOR EXCITATORY in CNS
Glyine – Inhibition & GABA
Dopamine – BRAIN, body movement (parkinson’s)
Norepinephrine – brain and automatic neurons
Serotonin – sleep regulation
Addiction
Cell decrease the number of receptors because of an abundance of nuerotranmitters
Vertebrate Brains
Hindbrain - RHOMBENCEPHALON
Midbrain - MESENCEPHALON
Forebrain – PROSENCEPHALON
Forebrain –
Basal Ganglia
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebral Cortex – outer layer of the CEREBRUM a lot of neural activity of the cerebellum
Contains 10% of brains neurons
MOTER< SENSORY< ASSOCIATIVE
Cerebrum – RIGHT AND LEFT
Left cerebral hemishphere – connected to corpus callosum
Highly convoluted surface (increases surface area)
3 regions
Cerbrial Cortex
Primary Motor Cortex
Primary Somatosensory cortex
Association Cortex
Nerves – bundles of axons bound by connective tissue
Ganglia – AGGREGATES of neuron cell bodies
PNS
Sensory – DORSAL ROOT
Motor- axons leave from ventral surface and from VENTRAL ROOT of spinal
Automatic Nervous System
Parasympathetic divisions & SYMPATHETIC & MEDULLA OBLONGATA
2 neurons
Preganglionic Neuron – smooth or cardiac muscle or glands
Postgangkionic – exits the ganglion and regulates visceral effectors
MOTOR EFFECTORS – RESPOND STIMULUS
NEURONS AND GLIAL CELLS MAKE UP NERVOUS SYSTEM
Sensory Neurons – afferent – carries to CNS
Motor Neurons – Efferent - from impulses to CNS to muscles and glands
Interneurons – Association – reflexes, learning and memory
Glial Cells – NOT involved in signal processing
8 roles
1. static support of neurons
2. insulation of nerve cell – OLIGODENDROCYTES – SCHWANN
3. removal of debribs after injury of the cell dies
4. take up of chemical transmitter
5. migration and growth of axon development
6. PRE-SYNAPTIC TERMINAL
7. blood brain barriers – ASTROCYTES
8. growth hormones and food for nerve cell
OLIGODENDROCYTES(CNS) – SCHWANN (PNS) – Myelsin Sheaths
Nerve Cells – also called neurons
Cell Body – soma – metabolic center
Dendrites – imput from other neurons
Axons – ONLY OUT PUT – output = action potential = transient. Action potential is triggered at the axon HILLOCK and travels 1 – 100 ms-1
Pre-Synaptic terminals – release chemical transmitter
NEURONS –
Cell Body , Axons, supporting cells ( neuroglia ) , Oligodendrites (CNS)
Dendrties , Schwann Cells (PNS) myelinated , Nodes of Ranvier
Axons – away from cell body
Smooth surface
Only 1 axon per cell
NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES NO RIBOSOMES
MYELIN
Branches further for the cell body
Dendrites – to cell body
Rough Surface (dendritic spines)
Many dendrites per cell
RIBOSOMES
NO MYELIN NO MYELIN NO MYELIN
Branch near cell body
Basic Info
IONS – CHARGED PARTICLES
ANIONS – ------- (NEGATIVE PARTICLES) ---------
CATIONS - ++++ (POSITIVE PARTICLES) ++++++
Ionic movement is caused by
1. Electrostatic Forces (+ attracts, same charge repel)
2. Concentration Forces (diffusion – movement of ions) and (osmosis)
3. Hydrostatics Forces – gravity forces upon osmosis
Permeability
1. Neuronal Membranes
2. Hydrophobic Lipid Bi-Layer
3. Gated Ion Channels
4. Non-gated Ion Channels
Resting membrane Potential
One positive pole – side exposed to extra-cellar fluid
One Negative pole –side exposed to cytoplasm
NOT Being stimulated – resting membrane potential (avg testing of -70(mV)
****Inside of cell is positively charged because of Sodium-potassium pump and Ion leakage channels ***
Resting membrane Potential
Sodium-potassium pump – every 3 Na+ (sodium ions) pumped out brings in 2 potassium ions (K+) – concentration gradient = high K+, low Na+ inside the cell and High Na+ and low K+ concentrations outside the cell
Ion leakage channels – leaks more K+ than Na+
-70 – 30 --------RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
Graded Potentials
The response to stimuli
Dendrites and cell body
Different gradations
Decremental Conduction - the further they must travel the weaker they become
EXCITATORY OR INHIBITORY
Synaptic Integration
Spatial Summation – many dendrites produce EPSPs
EPSPs - excitatory postsynaptic potential
Temporal Summation
Structure of Synapses
Intercellular junctions
Synaptic Cleft –
Receiving cell – POST SYNAPTIC
Presnaptic axon – contain neurotransmitters
Diffuse rapidly to the other side of the cleft, bind to the receptor proteins in the membrane of the POSTsynaptic cell
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine – neuron and skeletal muscle
Glumate – MAJOR EXCITATORY in CNS
Glyine – Inhibition & GABA
Dopamine – BRAIN, body movement (parkinson’s)
Norepinephrine – brain and automatic neurons
Serotonin – sleep regulation
Addiction
Cell decrease the number of receptors because of an abundance of nuerotranmitters
Vertebrate Brains
Hindbrain - RHOMBENCEPHALON
Midbrain - MESENCEPHALON
Forebrain – PROSENCEPHALON
Forebrain –
Basal Ganglia
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
Cerebral Cortex – outer layer of the CEREBRUM a lot of neural activity of the cerebellum
Contains 10% of brains neurons
MOTER< SENSORY< ASSOCIATIVE
Cerebrum – RIGHT AND LEFT
Left cerebral hemishphere – connected to corpus callosum
Highly convoluted surface (increases surface area)
3 regions
Cerbrial Cortex
Primary Motor Cortex
Primary Somatosensory cortex
Association Cortex
Nerves – bundles of axons bound by connective tissue
Ganglia – AGGREGATES of neuron cell bodies
PNS
Sensory – DORSAL ROOT
Motor- axons leave from ventral surface and from VENTRAL ROOT of spinal
Automatic Nervous System
Parasympathetic divisions & SYMPATHETIC & MEDULLA OBLONGATA
2 neurons
Preganglionic Neuron – smooth or cardiac muscle or glands
Postgangkionic – exits the ganglion and regulates visceral effectors
Tuesday, July 28, 2009
Biology Vocab
Test Review Chapters 43, 47, 48
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Biology Vocab
Test Review Chapters 43, 47, 48
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Monday, July 27, 2009
Slides
Lilly ovary Lilly Ovary
Lilly pollen Lilly Pollen
Anther
Vascular Bundle (
Dicot Stem Dicot Stem
Old Stem
Young Stem
Monocot Stem Monocot Stem
monocot root
megasporangium
Lilly pollen Lilly Pollen
Anther
Vascular Bundle (
Dicot Stem Dicot Stem
Old Stem
Young Stem
Monocot Stem Monocot Stem
monocot root
megasporangium
Friday, July 24, 2009
WHY ME!!
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Friday, July 17, 2009
I like this
1. Cellular respiration
1. Cellular respiration is a complex mechanism whereby large numbers of ATPs are produced via the utilization of an inorganic final electron acceptor and an electron transport chain.
2. Aerobic and anaerobic:
1. Cellular respiration comes in two general varieties distinguished by the nature of their inorganic final electron acceptor: oxygen versus everything else.
2. These two forms of cellular respiration are dubbed aerobic and anaerobic respiration (or cellular respiration), respectively.
2. Aerobic respiration
1. Cellular respiration in which oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Aerobic respiration is by far and away the more common form of cellular respiration.
3. Anaerobic respiration
1. No oxygen, yes electron transport chain:
1. Cellular respiration in which something other than oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Examples of non-oxygen final electron acceptors include:
3. nitrate, NO3-, which is converted to nitrite, nitrous oxide, or nitrogen [NO21-, N2O, and N2, respectively] in the process
4. sulfate, (SO42-, which is converted to hydrogen sulfide, H2S
5. carbonate, CO32-, which is converted to methane, CH4
2. Anaerobic respiration doesn't result in as much ATP production as when oxygen is the final electron receptor.
3. Nevertheless, organisms (i.e., bacteria) that use anaerobic respiration occupy important niches and, indeed, exploit niches that organisms which require aerobic respiration cannot exploit and therefore cannot compete for.
4. Products of glycolysis
1. Glycolysis is cytoplasmic:
1. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells.
2. Glycolysis also occurs in the cytoplasm of bacteria.
2. NADH and pyruvate:
1. Besides ATP, the two important products of glycolysis are NADH and pyruvate.
2. When oxygen is lacking, both products are sacrificed to the process of fermentation in order to regenerate NAD+.
3. In organisms capable of undergoing cellular respiration, however, both NADH and pyruvate may be further oxidized to generate additional ATP.
4. These further steps are performed within mitochondria in eucaryotes.
3. Bacteria do it all cytoplasmically:
1. Within bacteria possessing electron transport systems, both glycolysis and cellular respiration take place in their cytoplasms.
2. This differs from the doings of eucaryotes because eucaryotes have literally co-opted bacteria--a.k.a. mitochondria--to perform their cellular respiration).
5. NADH into mitochondria
1. Active NADH transport into mitochondria:
1. The NADH product of glycolysis may be utilized in cellular respiration given transport of the NADH into mitochondria (procaryotes, of course, don't have this problem).
2. This transfer costs eucaryotic cells one ATP.
6. Acetyl-CoA [coenzyme A]
1. Central metabolic intermediate:
1. A central molecule in cellular respiration, one to which all proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates must be converted prior to participation in cellular respiration.
2. The fate of acetyl-CoA is dependent upon ATP needs. When ATP is prevalent, acetyl-CoA serves as the basis for fatty acid synthesis, which forms the basis of your body's long-term energy storage: triglycerides (i.e., fat).
3. Alternatively, acetyl-CoA may enter the Kreb's citric acid cycle.
2. Structure of acetyl-CoA:
1. Structurally, acetyl-CoA consists of a two carbon group attached to a coenzyme (coenzyme A). That is, an acetyl group has the following structure:
|
H3C-C=O
7. Note the unpaired electron on top of the first carbon (i.e., that attached to the double-bonded oxygen) which is bound to coenzyme A in acetyl-CoA. Coenzyme A is far more complex and based upon an ADP core. See figure 1100.1.
8. Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
1. Pyruvate is transported into mitochondria at no apparent energy cost.
2. There it is converted into acetyl-CoA with the following stoichiometry: pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA à acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO2
9. Kreb's (citric acid, tricarboxylic acid) cycle
1. A multi-step reaction during which an acetyl group is completely oxidized to CO2 . . .
2. . . . and reducing hydrogens.
3. This oxidation is analogous, and in some ways mechanistically similar to the oxidation of glucose in glycolysis through pyruvate and acetyl-CoA formation. That is:
1. reducing hydrogens are accumulated in NADH
2. some ATP is generated
3. there is a reduction in carbon number, though here this is effected through liberation of carbon dioxide
4. In the Kreb's cycle there is an electron acceptor in addition to NAD+ called FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide; which is converted to FADH2 in the course of reduction).
5. Overall, the Kreb's cycle has the following stoichiometry:
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + 2H2O + ADP + Pi + 3NAD+ + FAD à oxaloacetate + 2CO2 + CoA + ATP + 3NADH + 3H+ + 2"FADH2
10. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle (simplified outline)
1. Below is a greatly simplified outline of the Kreb's cycle to give you a very basic idea of the reactions involved0:
1. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
2. C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
3. C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2"FADH2 + ATP + CO2
4. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
5. etc. . . .
2. Note that:
1. C4 in its final form (as shown above) is oxaloacetate (recall that the above is a gross over-simplification and thus C4 compounds in the Kreb's cycle also include, in order, succinyl-CoA, succinic acid, fumaric acid, and malic acid)
2. C6 is citric acid (as well as a number of other compounds as it is successively converted to including cis-aconitic acid, isocitric acid, and oxalosuccinic acid)
3. C2-CoA is, of course, acetyl-CoA.
4. C5, on the other hand, represents just a-ketoglutaric acid.
11. Structures of Kreb's cycle intermediates
1. C6: citric acid (note: H2O is gained, acetyl-CoA is added to oxaloacetate, and coenzyme-A is lost in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
2.
C6: cis-aconitic acid (cis-acontate) (note: H2O is lost to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
3.
C6: isocitric acid (isocitrate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
4.
C6: oxalosuccinic acid (oxalosuccinate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
5.
C5: a-Ketoglutaric acid (alpha-ketoglutarate) (note: CO2 is lost in the making of this intermediate):
HOOC-C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
6.
C4: succinyl-CoA (note: CO2 is lost, NAD+ reduced, and coenzyme A added in the making of this intermediate--this step should remind you of the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA):
coenzyme-A
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
7.
C4: succinic acid (succinate) (note: in the making of this intermediate sufficient energy is liberated to phosphorylate ADP thus producing one ATP):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
8.
C4: fumaric acid (fumarate) (note: FAD is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
H
9.
C4: malic acid (malate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
H
10.
C4: oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
H
12.
Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
1. As with glycolysis, continued cycling of the Kreb's cycle depends on the regeneration of NAD+ and FAD.
2. Unlike fermentation, cellular respiration has a means of extracting the energy in the reduced molecules (NADH and 2"FADH2).
3. In fact, this energy extraction procedure employs an electron transport system, has a molecular oxygen terminal electron acceptor, and is employed to generate ATP via a process called chemiosmosis.
13. Electron transport system [chain]
1. A series of oxidizing and reducing molecules (proteins and other) found in the inner membrane of mitochondria as well as all bacteria capable of undergoing cellular respiration.
2. Electron transport chains convert the energy associated with reduced electrons, liberated in the conversion of NADH to NAD+ (and 2"FADH2 to FAD), to protons (H+) pumped from the mitochondria matrix (for example) to the mitochondria outer compartment.
3. high [H+] out, low in (matrix)
4. As electrons are transported along this chain of electron donors and acceptors they incrementally lose energy (which, as noted, is harnessed in the pumping of protons out of the mitochondria matrix).
5. The final acceptor of the electrons, in aerobic respiration, is molecular oxygen, a matrix reaction which serves to increase the proton concentration gradient across the mitochondria inner membrane: 4H+ + 4e- + O2 à 2H2O
6. Absolute dependence on final electron acceptor:
1. Note that in the absence of a final electron acceptor, cellular respiration stops.
2. Note also that for humans and other aerobic respirators, this means that cellular respiration cannot occur in the absence of oxygen.
14. Chemiosmosis
1. The pumping of protons from the mitochondria matrix into the mitochondria outer compartment establishes a concentration gradient.
2. Influx coupled to ATP synthesis:
1. This concentration gradient may be harnessed though coupling with the facilitated diffusion of these protons back into the matrix.
2. In fact, this facilitated diffusion is harnessed (via a proton-pump running in reverse; for an idea of how a proton-pump might work see how a sodium-potassium pump pumps sodium ions) to generate ATP in a process known as chemiosmosis.
3. The stoichiometry of chemiosmosis and electron transport chain (ETS) pumping is:
9H+ (matrix) + NADH
--(ETS)--
NAD+ + 9H+ (outer compartment)
6H+ (matrix) + 2"FADH2
--(ETS)--
FAD + 9H+ (outer compartment)
3H+ (outer compartment) + ADP + Pi
--(with concentration gradient)--
3H+ (matrix) + ATP
15. Vocabulary
1. Acetyl-CoA
2. Active transport of NADH into mitochondria
3. Aerobic respiration
4. Anaerobic respiration
5. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle
6. Cellular respiration
7. Chemiosmosis
8. Citric acid
9. Conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA
10. Electron transport chain
11. FAD
12. 2"FADH2
13. Kreb's cycle
14. Kreb's citric acid cycle
15. Oxaloacetate
16. Regeneration of FAD
17. Regeneration of NAD+
18. Tricarboxylic acid cycle
16. Practice questions
1. Which is the least reduced (circle correct answer): [PEEK]
(i) (ii) (iii)
H H
| |
HOOC-C=O HOOC-C-OH HOOC-C-H
| | |
HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-OH
| | |
HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H
| | |
H H H
(iv) no difference
1. What's the next reaction (i.e., involving C4)? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
(1) C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
(2) C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
(3) C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + FADH2 + ATP + CO2
(4) ???
2. What two products of glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria thus allowing eucaryotes to generate more than two ATP per glucose? [PEEK]
3. What happens to acetyl-CoA if a cell already has sufficient quantities of ATP? [PEEK]
4. Fill in the missing numbers to produce a stoichiometrically correct overall Kreb's cycle: [PEEK]
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + H2O +
___ ADP + ___ Pi + ___ NAD+ + ___ FAD à
oxaloacetate + ___ CO2 + CoA + ___
ATP + ___ NADH + ___ H+ + ___ FADH2
5. The following molecule is? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
OH
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
C=O
|
C=O
|
O- Na+
1. Oxaloacetate
2. NADH
3. glucose 6-phosphate
4. citric acid
5. FADH2
6. pyruvate
7. all of the above
8. none of the above
6. Draw citric acid. [PEEK]
7. In eucaryotes, how many gross (i.e., ignore priming and transport costs) additional ATPs are produced per glucose via chemiosmosis? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 1
2. 11
3. 22
4. 34
5. 36
6. 38
7. 40
8. 42
8. Based on your limited knowledge of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and considering only those electrons which are routinely lost and gained, which of the following compounds would you say is the most reduced? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. NADH
2. NAD+
3. FADH2
4. FAD
5. all are equivalent
9. What is the following: [PEEK]
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1. pyruvic acid
2. ascorbic acid
3. citric acid
4. benzoic acid
5. oxaloacetic acid
6. none of the above
1. I mentioned in class that certain Pseudomonas species are responsible for the conversion of fixed nitrogen to molecular nitrogen in anaerobic soils, particularly those soaked with water. They do this by employing nitrate (NO3-) as a final electron acceptor. What is a general name for this process whereby an inorganic substance is employed as a final electron acceptor in an anaerobic environment? [PEEK]
2. Name two differences between respiration and fermentation.[PEEK]
3. In aerobic respiration, what is the final electron acceptor[PEEK]
4. Which two of the following are composed of, in part or in whole, of a three carbon core such as that found in glycerol (shown below)? [PEEK]
OH OH OH
| | |
H - C - C - C - H
| | |
H H H
(circle both correct answers below)
1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb's cycle
3. phospholipids
4. tricarboxylic acid
5. inorganic phosphate
6. sterols
5. Start with one Glucose. At the end of glycolysis but prior to acetyl CoA production (and prior to the Kreb's cycle, and prior to electron transfer, and prior to chemiosmosis, i.e., in solving this problem ignore all other aspects of cellular respiration other than the transport of glycolytic products into the mitochondria), if all of the glycolytic products which normally find their way into the mitochondria are now there, what is the up to this moment net yield of ATP? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. more than four.
6. How many carbon dioxides are produced per individual turn of the Kreb's citric acid cycle (i.e., starting with one acetyl-CoA and one oxaloacetate and ending with one oxaloacetate)? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. 5.
7. 6.
8. more than 6.
7. Just considering numbers of carbon atoms (and ignoring ADPs, ATPs, NAD+, NADH, FAD, FADH2, various enzymes, and other structural components of the cell), glycolysis and then the Kreb's cycle progress via (non-carbon dioxide) carbon containing compound intermediates having __________ carbon atoms each (note: ignore isomerizations as well as other changes in compounds which do no result in changes in carbon number). (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and then 1.
2. 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
3. 6, 7, 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
4. 6 and then 2.
5. 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
6. 6, 4, 2, 6, and then 4.
7. 6, 2, 4, and then 6.
8. The total ATP produced (i.e., gross--ignore priming costs and transport costs), as a consequence of both substrate level phosphrolylation and chemiosmosis, as a consequence of (i) glycolysis, (ii) acetyl-CoA production, (iii) Kreb's cycle, (iv) substrate-level phosphorylation-only, and (v) chemiosmosis-only, all per one starting glucose, is __________ ATPs, repectively. (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 4, 12, 18, 3, and 24.
2. 8, 4, 22, 5, and 30.
3. 6, 2, 20, 4, and 28.
4. 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
5. 2, 8, 16, 2, and 20.
6. 0, 6, 14, 1, and 16.
9. Name two ways fermentation differs from anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
10. Name three possible byproducts of ATP generation. [PEEK]
11. "__________," is one similarity between fermentation and anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
1. both occur purely in the cytoplasm.
2. both are a feature of obligate aerobes.
3. both occur only in eucaryotes.
4. both regenerate NAD+.
5. both require oxygen.
6. humans are capable of doing both.
1. Practice question answers
1. i is the answer (structure on left). These are all Kreb's cycle intermediates. The one in the middle is isocitric acid while the one on the left is oxalosuccinic acid. Citric acid is on the far right. Note that, in the course of the Kreb's cycle, citric acid is converted to isocitric acid which is then converted to oxalosuccinic acid, the latter reaction results in NAD+ being reduced to NADH + H+. Thus, the most oxidized (i.e., least reduced) is the compound on the left, oxalosuccinic acid. Regardless, the intermediates to oxalosuccinic acids (middle and far right) both have more hydrogens thus suggesting a greater level of reduction.
2. Same as first reaction (1), C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
3. pyruvate and NADH
4. storage fats are made
5. all are ones except in front of CO2 which is a two and in front of NAD+, NADH, and H+ which are all threes.
6. i, oxaloacetate
7. tricarboxylic acid:
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1.
2. iv, per pyruvate there is 1 NADH + H+ from glycolysis + 1 NADH + H+ from acetyl-CoA formation + 3 NADH + H+ from the Kreb's citric acid cycle + 1 FADH2 from the Kreb's citric acid cycle. Given 3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP through FADH2 following electron transport and chemiosmosis, that's (5 * 3) + 2 ATP = 17 ATP per pyruvate or a 34 ATP per glucose gross yield from chemiosmosis. Of course we lose 2 ATP for the transport of 2 NADHs into the mitochondria, so the net gain is 32 ATP from chemiosmosis. Note that two additional ATPs come from glycolysis and substrate level phosphorylation during the Kreb's cycle bring the total net ATP yield to 36 per glucose in eucoryotes. i, NADH. The easy way to figure this out is to note how many ATPs each species is worth upon access to an electron transport chain in a mitochondria: 3, 0, 2, and 0 for NADH, NAD+, FADH2, and FAD.
3. iii, citric acid
4. anaerobic respiration
5. Respiration makes lots of ATP, uses inorganic final electron acceptors (such as molecular oxygen), and uses an electron transport chain. Fermentation makes only a little ATP, does not use an electron transport chain, and uses organic final electron acceptors. Note that in either case "waste" molecules are given off into the environment (CO2 is the waste molecule in the case of aerobic respiration).
6. Oxygen
7. i and iii, glycolysis (a number of intermediates) and phospholipids (a glycerol derivative forms the central core)
8. i, 0; recall that only two net ATP are produced by glycolysis, but that these are both employed in the transport of NADH into the mitochondria.
9. iii, 2; remember, each turn of the Kreb's cycle converts a six carbon molecule to a four carbon molecule with each carbon lost as a CO(2).
10. v, 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
11. iv, 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
12. organic final electron acceptor rather than inorganic, less ATP versus more, production of organic waste versus lack of production of organic waste, lack of use of electron transport system versus use of, ATPs generated by substrate level phosphorylation versus ATPs mostly generated by chemiosmosis, lack of chemiosmosis versus chemiosmosis, etc.
13. H2O, various non-oxygen inorganic electron acceptors including nitrogen gas, NADH, fermentation products including: lactic acid, ethanol, CO2, acetone, formic acid, H+.
14. iv, both regenerate NAD+.
1. References
1. Raven, P.H., Johnson, G.B. (1995). Biology (updated version). Third Edition. Wm. C. Brown publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. pp. 153-178.
1. Cellular respiration is a complex mechanism whereby large numbers of ATPs are produced via the utilization of an inorganic final electron acceptor and an electron transport chain.
2. Aerobic and anaerobic:
1. Cellular respiration comes in two general varieties distinguished by the nature of their inorganic final electron acceptor: oxygen versus everything else.
2. These two forms of cellular respiration are dubbed aerobic and anaerobic respiration (or cellular respiration), respectively.
2. Aerobic respiration
1. Cellular respiration in which oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Aerobic respiration is by far and away the more common form of cellular respiration.
3. Anaerobic respiration
1. No oxygen, yes electron transport chain:
1. Cellular respiration in which something other than oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Examples of non-oxygen final electron acceptors include:
3. nitrate, NO3-, which is converted to nitrite, nitrous oxide, or nitrogen [NO21-, N2O, and N2, respectively] in the process
4. sulfate, (SO42-, which is converted to hydrogen sulfide, H2S
5. carbonate, CO32-, which is converted to methane, CH4
2. Anaerobic respiration doesn't result in as much ATP production as when oxygen is the final electron receptor.
3. Nevertheless, organisms (i.e., bacteria) that use anaerobic respiration occupy important niches and, indeed, exploit niches that organisms which require aerobic respiration cannot exploit and therefore cannot compete for.
4. Products of glycolysis
1. Glycolysis is cytoplasmic:
1. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells.
2. Glycolysis also occurs in the cytoplasm of bacteria.
2. NADH and pyruvate:
1. Besides ATP, the two important products of glycolysis are NADH and pyruvate.
2. When oxygen is lacking, both products are sacrificed to the process of fermentation in order to regenerate NAD+.
3. In organisms capable of undergoing cellular respiration, however, both NADH and pyruvate may be further oxidized to generate additional ATP.
4. These further steps are performed within mitochondria in eucaryotes.
3. Bacteria do it all cytoplasmically:
1. Within bacteria possessing electron transport systems, both glycolysis and cellular respiration take place in their cytoplasms.
2. This differs from the doings of eucaryotes because eucaryotes have literally co-opted bacteria--a.k.a. mitochondria--to perform their cellular respiration).
5. NADH into mitochondria
1. Active NADH transport into mitochondria:
1. The NADH product of glycolysis may be utilized in cellular respiration given transport of the NADH into mitochondria (procaryotes, of course, don't have this problem).
2. This transfer costs eucaryotic cells one ATP.
6. Acetyl-CoA [coenzyme A]
1. Central metabolic intermediate:
1. A central molecule in cellular respiration, one to which all proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates must be converted prior to participation in cellular respiration.
2. The fate of acetyl-CoA is dependent upon ATP needs. When ATP is prevalent, acetyl-CoA serves as the basis for fatty acid synthesis, which forms the basis of your body's long-term energy storage: triglycerides (i.e., fat).
3. Alternatively, acetyl-CoA may enter the Kreb's citric acid cycle.
2. Structure of acetyl-CoA:
1. Structurally, acetyl-CoA consists of a two carbon group attached to a coenzyme (coenzyme A). That is, an acetyl group has the following structure:
|
H3C-C=O
7. Note the unpaired electron on top of the first carbon (i.e., that attached to the double-bonded oxygen) which is bound to coenzyme A in acetyl-CoA. Coenzyme A is far more complex and based upon an ADP core. See figure 1100.1.
8. Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
1. Pyruvate is transported into mitochondria at no apparent energy cost.
2. There it is converted into acetyl-CoA with the following stoichiometry: pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA à acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO2
9. Kreb's (citric acid, tricarboxylic acid) cycle
1. A multi-step reaction during which an acetyl group is completely oxidized to CO2 . . .
2. . . . and reducing hydrogens.
3. This oxidation is analogous, and in some ways mechanistically similar to the oxidation of glucose in glycolysis through pyruvate and acetyl-CoA formation. That is:
1. reducing hydrogens are accumulated in NADH
2. some ATP is generated
3. there is a reduction in carbon number, though here this is effected through liberation of carbon dioxide
4. In the Kreb's cycle there is an electron acceptor in addition to NAD+ called FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide; which is converted to FADH2 in the course of reduction).
5. Overall, the Kreb's cycle has the following stoichiometry:
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + 2H2O + ADP + Pi + 3NAD+ + FAD à oxaloacetate + 2CO2 + CoA + ATP + 3NADH + 3H+ + 2"FADH2
10. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle (simplified outline)
1. Below is a greatly simplified outline of the Kreb's cycle to give you a very basic idea of the reactions involved0:
1. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
2. C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
3. C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2"FADH2 + ATP + CO2
4. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
5. etc. . . .
2. Note that:
1. C4 in its final form (as shown above) is oxaloacetate (recall that the above is a gross over-simplification and thus C4 compounds in the Kreb's cycle also include, in order, succinyl-CoA, succinic acid, fumaric acid, and malic acid)
2. C6 is citric acid (as well as a number of other compounds as it is successively converted to including cis-aconitic acid, isocitric acid, and oxalosuccinic acid)
3. C2-CoA is, of course, acetyl-CoA.
4. C5, on the other hand, represents just a-ketoglutaric acid.
11. Structures of Kreb's cycle intermediates
1. C6: citric acid (note: H2O is gained, acetyl-CoA is added to oxaloacetate, and coenzyme-A is lost in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
2.
C6: cis-aconitic acid (cis-acontate) (note: H2O is lost to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
3.
C6: isocitric acid (isocitrate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
4.
C6: oxalosuccinic acid (oxalosuccinate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
5.
C5: a-Ketoglutaric acid (alpha-ketoglutarate) (note: CO2 is lost in the making of this intermediate):
HOOC-C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
6.
C4: succinyl-CoA (note: CO2 is lost, NAD+ reduced, and coenzyme A added in the making of this intermediate--this step should remind you of the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA):
coenzyme-A
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
7.
C4: succinic acid (succinate) (note: in the making of this intermediate sufficient energy is liberated to phosphorylate ADP thus producing one ATP):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
8.
C4: fumaric acid (fumarate) (note: FAD is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
H
9.
C4: malic acid (malate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
H
10.
C4: oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
H
12.
Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
1. As with glycolysis, continued cycling of the Kreb's cycle depends on the regeneration of NAD+ and FAD.
2. Unlike fermentation, cellular respiration has a means of extracting the energy in the reduced molecules (NADH and 2"FADH2).
3. In fact, this energy extraction procedure employs an electron transport system, has a molecular oxygen terminal electron acceptor, and is employed to generate ATP via a process called chemiosmosis.
13. Electron transport system [chain]
1. A series of oxidizing and reducing molecules (proteins and other) found in the inner membrane of mitochondria as well as all bacteria capable of undergoing cellular respiration.
2. Electron transport chains convert the energy associated with reduced electrons, liberated in the conversion of NADH to NAD+ (and 2"FADH2 to FAD), to protons (H+) pumped from the mitochondria matrix (for example) to the mitochondria outer compartment.
3. high [H+] out, low in (matrix)
4. As electrons are transported along this chain of electron donors and acceptors they incrementally lose energy (which, as noted, is harnessed in the pumping of protons out of the mitochondria matrix).
5. The final acceptor of the electrons, in aerobic respiration, is molecular oxygen, a matrix reaction which serves to increase the proton concentration gradient across the mitochondria inner membrane: 4H+ + 4e- + O2 à 2H2O
6. Absolute dependence on final electron acceptor:
1. Note that in the absence of a final electron acceptor, cellular respiration stops.
2. Note also that for humans and other aerobic respirators, this means that cellular respiration cannot occur in the absence of oxygen.
14. Chemiosmosis
1. The pumping of protons from the mitochondria matrix into the mitochondria outer compartment establishes a concentration gradient.
2. Influx coupled to ATP synthesis:
1. This concentration gradient may be harnessed though coupling with the facilitated diffusion of these protons back into the matrix.
2. In fact, this facilitated diffusion is harnessed (via a proton-pump running in reverse; for an idea of how a proton-pump might work see how a sodium-potassium pump pumps sodium ions) to generate ATP in a process known as chemiosmosis.
3. The stoichiometry of chemiosmosis and electron transport chain (ETS) pumping is:
9H+ (matrix) + NADH
--(ETS)--
NAD+ + 9H+ (outer compartment)
6H+ (matrix) + 2"FADH2
--(ETS)--
FAD + 9H+ (outer compartment)
3H+ (outer compartment) + ADP + Pi
--(with concentration gradient)--
3H+ (matrix) + ATP
15. Vocabulary
1. Acetyl-CoA
2. Active transport of NADH into mitochondria
3. Aerobic respiration
4. Anaerobic respiration
5. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle
6. Cellular respiration
7. Chemiosmosis
8. Citric acid
9. Conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA
10. Electron transport chain
11. FAD
12. 2"FADH2
13. Kreb's cycle
14. Kreb's citric acid cycle
15. Oxaloacetate
16. Regeneration of FAD
17. Regeneration of NAD+
18. Tricarboxylic acid cycle
16. Practice questions
1. Which is the least reduced (circle correct answer): [PEEK]
(i) (ii) (iii)
H H
| |
HOOC-C=O HOOC-C-OH HOOC-C-H
| | |
HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-OH
| | |
HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H
| | |
H H H
(iv) no difference
1. What's the next reaction (i.e., involving C4)? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
(1) C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
(2) C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
(3) C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + FADH2 + ATP + CO2
(4) ???
2. What two products of glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria thus allowing eucaryotes to generate more than two ATP per glucose? [PEEK]
3. What happens to acetyl-CoA if a cell already has sufficient quantities of ATP? [PEEK]
4. Fill in the missing numbers to produce a stoichiometrically correct overall Kreb's cycle: [PEEK]
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + H2O +
___ ADP + ___ Pi + ___ NAD+ + ___ FAD à
oxaloacetate + ___ CO2 + CoA + ___
ATP + ___ NADH + ___ H+ + ___ FADH2
5. The following molecule is? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
OH
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
C=O
|
C=O
|
O- Na+
1. Oxaloacetate
2. NADH
3. glucose 6-phosphate
4. citric acid
5. FADH2
6. pyruvate
7. all of the above
8. none of the above
6. Draw citric acid. [PEEK]
7. In eucaryotes, how many gross (i.e., ignore priming and transport costs) additional ATPs are produced per glucose via chemiosmosis? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 1
2. 11
3. 22
4. 34
5. 36
6. 38
7. 40
8. 42
8. Based on your limited knowledge of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and considering only those electrons which are routinely lost and gained, which of the following compounds would you say is the most reduced? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. NADH
2. NAD+
3. FADH2
4. FAD
5. all are equivalent
9. What is the following: [PEEK]
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1. pyruvic acid
2. ascorbic acid
3. citric acid
4. benzoic acid
5. oxaloacetic acid
6. none of the above
1. I mentioned in class that certain Pseudomonas species are responsible for the conversion of fixed nitrogen to molecular nitrogen in anaerobic soils, particularly those soaked with water. They do this by employing nitrate (NO3-) as a final electron acceptor. What is a general name for this process whereby an inorganic substance is employed as a final electron acceptor in an anaerobic environment? [PEEK]
2. Name two differences between respiration and fermentation.[PEEK]
3. In aerobic respiration, what is the final electron acceptor[PEEK]
4. Which two of the following are composed of, in part or in whole, of a three carbon core such as that found in glycerol (shown below)? [PEEK]
OH OH OH
| | |
H - C - C - C - H
| | |
H H H
(circle both correct answers below)
1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb's cycle
3. phospholipids
4. tricarboxylic acid
5. inorganic phosphate
6. sterols
5. Start with one Glucose. At the end of glycolysis but prior to acetyl CoA production (and prior to the Kreb's cycle, and prior to electron transfer, and prior to chemiosmosis, i.e., in solving this problem ignore all other aspects of cellular respiration other than the transport of glycolytic products into the mitochondria), if all of the glycolytic products which normally find their way into the mitochondria are now there, what is the up to this moment net yield of ATP? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. more than four.
6. How many carbon dioxides are produced per individual turn of the Kreb's citric acid cycle (i.e., starting with one acetyl-CoA and one oxaloacetate and ending with one oxaloacetate)? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. 5.
7. 6.
8. more than 6.
7. Just considering numbers of carbon atoms (and ignoring ADPs, ATPs, NAD+, NADH, FAD, FADH2, various enzymes, and other structural components of the cell), glycolysis and then the Kreb's cycle progress via (non-carbon dioxide) carbon containing compound intermediates having __________ carbon atoms each (note: ignore isomerizations as well as other changes in compounds which do no result in changes in carbon number). (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and then 1.
2. 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
3. 6, 7, 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
4. 6 and then 2.
5. 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
6. 6, 4, 2, 6, and then 4.
7. 6, 2, 4, and then 6.
8. The total ATP produced (i.e., gross--ignore priming costs and transport costs), as a consequence of both substrate level phosphrolylation and chemiosmosis, as a consequence of (i) glycolysis, (ii) acetyl-CoA production, (iii) Kreb's cycle, (iv) substrate-level phosphorylation-only, and (v) chemiosmosis-only, all per one starting glucose, is __________ ATPs, repectively. (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 4, 12, 18, 3, and 24.
2. 8, 4, 22, 5, and 30.
3. 6, 2, 20, 4, and 28.
4. 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
5. 2, 8, 16, 2, and 20.
6. 0, 6, 14, 1, and 16.
9. Name two ways fermentation differs from anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
10. Name three possible byproducts of ATP generation. [PEEK]
11. "__________," is one similarity between fermentation and anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
1. both occur purely in the cytoplasm.
2. both are a feature of obligate aerobes.
3. both occur only in eucaryotes.
4. both regenerate NAD+.
5. both require oxygen.
6. humans are capable of doing both.
1. Practice question answers
1. i is the answer (structure on left). These are all Kreb's cycle intermediates. The one in the middle is isocitric acid while the one on the left is oxalosuccinic acid. Citric acid is on the far right. Note that, in the course of the Kreb's cycle, citric acid is converted to isocitric acid which is then converted to oxalosuccinic acid, the latter reaction results in NAD+ being reduced to NADH + H+. Thus, the most oxidized (i.e., least reduced) is the compound on the left, oxalosuccinic acid. Regardless, the intermediates to oxalosuccinic acids (middle and far right) both have more hydrogens thus suggesting a greater level of reduction.
2. Same as first reaction (1), C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
3. pyruvate and NADH
4. storage fats are made
5. all are ones except in front of CO2 which is a two and in front of NAD+, NADH, and H+ which are all threes.
6. i, oxaloacetate
7. tricarboxylic acid:
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1.
2. iv, per pyruvate there is 1 NADH + H+ from glycolysis + 1 NADH + H+ from acetyl-CoA formation + 3 NADH + H+ from the Kreb's citric acid cycle + 1 FADH2 from the Kreb's citric acid cycle. Given 3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP through FADH2 following electron transport and chemiosmosis, that's (5 * 3) + 2 ATP = 17 ATP per pyruvate or a 34 ATP per glucose gross yield from chemiosmosis. Of course we lose 2 ATP for the transport of 2 NADHs into the mitochondria, so the net gain is 32 ATP from chemiosmosis. Note that two additional ATPs come from glycolysis and substrate level phosphorylation during the Kreb's cycle bring the total net ATP yield to 36 per glucose in eucoryotes. i, NADH. The easy way to figure this out is to note how many ATPs each species is worth upon access to an electron transport chain in a mitochondria: 3, 0, 2, and 0 for NADH, NAD+, FADH2, and FAD.
3. iii, citric acid
4. anaerobic respiration
5. Respiration makes lots of ATP, uses inorganic final electron acceptors (such as molecular oxygen), and uses an electron transport chain. Fermentation makes only a little ATP, does not use an electron transport chain, and uses organic final electron acceptors. Note that in either case "waste" molecules are given off into the environment (CO2 is the waste molecule in the case of aerobic respiration).
6. Oxygen
7. i and iii, glycolysis (a number of intermediates) and phospholipids (a glycerol derivative forms the central core)
8. i, 0; recall that only two net ATP are produced by glycolysis, but that these are both employed in the transport of NADH into the mitochondria.
9. iii, 2; remember, each turn of the Kreb's cycle converts a six carbon molecule to a four carbon molecule with each carbon lost as a CO(2).
10. v, 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
11. iv, 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
12. organic final electron acceptor rather than inorganic, less ATP versus more, production of organic waste versus lack of production of organic waste, lack of use of electron transport system versus use of, ATPs generated by substrate level phosphorylation versus ATPs mostly generated by chemiosmosis, lack of chemiosmosis versus chemiosmosis, etc.
13. H2O, various non-oxygen inorganic electron acceptors including nitrogen gas, NADH, fermentation products including: lactic acid, ethanol, CO2, acetone, formic acid, H+.
14. iv, both regenerate NAD+.
1. References
1. Raven, P.H., Johnson, G.B. (1995). Biology (updated version). Third Edition. Wm. C. Brown publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. pp. 153-178.
Wednesday, July 15, 2009
Quiz I Lab Review
Hypotheses –
1. Identify the by-products of aerobic and anaerobic respiration in yeast.
2. The effects of freezing on aerobic respiration of peas.
3. Rate of oxygen consumption in room thawed peas and peas.
YEAST AND GLUCOSE
How –
Yeast can break down glucose therefore, it was mixed, causing Glycolysis to happen. The end product of Ethanolic Fermentation in Yeast is water and carbon dioxide (CO2)
Culture set up, with tube coming out of it, heated, produced ethanol, yellow precipitate. YELLOW precipitate indicates presence of ethanol.
White precipitate tells us CO2 is being produced.
In the experiment we took 4 test tubes
1. Number 1 to 4
2. Add Iodine to each****KOH **
3. Add NAOH sodium hydroxide to each NAOH **** NAOH sodium hydroxide
4. Add Sample in each
a. Tube 1 - distilled water
b. Tube 2– Water and 95% ethanol
c. Tube 3 – Anaerobic culture
d. Tube 4 – Control (already done)
WAITED 5 Minutes
Then Mixed
1. If ethanol is present it will react with the iodine to form (iodoform)
2. Tube 3 with the anaerobic culture should have turned Yellow Precipitate
Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate***** Yellow Precipitate = Ethanol
Yellow Precipitate ***IODOFORM***** = Ethanol
IODOFORM ***Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate*** IODOFORM
1. Identify the by-products of aerobic and anaerobic respiration in yeast.
2. The effects of freezing on aerobic respiration of peas.
3. Rate of oxygen consumption in room thawed peas and peas.
YEAST AND GLUCOSE
How –
Yeast can break down glucose therefore, it was mixed, causing Glycolysis to happen. The end product of Ethanolic Fermentation in Yeast is water and carbon dioxide (CO2)
Culture set up, with tube coming out of it, heated, produced ethanol, yellow precipitate. YELLOW precipitate indicates presence of ethanol.
White precipitate tells us CO2 is being produced.
In the experiment we took 4 test tubes
1. Number 1 to 4
2. Add Iodine to each****KOH **
3. Add NAOH sodium hydroxide to each NAOH **** NAOH sodium hydroxide
4. Add Sample in each
a. Tube 1 - distilled water
b. Tube 2– Water and 95% ethanol
c. Tube 3 – Anaerobic culture
d. Tube 4 – Control (already done)
WAITED 5 Minutes
Then Mixed
1. If ethanol is present it will react with the iodine to form (iodoform)
2. Tube 3 with the anaerobic culture should have turned Yellow Precipitate
Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate***** Yellow Precipitate = Ethanol
Yellow Precipitate ***IODOFORM***** = Ethanol
IODOFORM ***Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate*** IODOFORM
Tuesday, July 14, 2009
Day 2! Today we studied, respiration - anaerobic and aerobic. Also Glycolysis, with and without oxygen, Krebs, ATP, ADP, Mitochondria, NAD+, NADH an
Respiration – Goal = produce ATP, released as electrons (ex. NAD+) to ETC = ATP
Anaerobic - without air (without oxygen) Absence of electron acceptor like as nitrate, sulphate or oxygen. Inorganic molecule (other than oxygen), CO2 is reduced to methane
Aerobic – means with oxygen, Glycolysis is able to make Pyruvate, which product is Acetyl-CoA, then that enters the Krebs Cycle
Fermentation – Organic molecule as final electron acceptor.
NAD+ - an important electron carrier (AMP)
When NAD+ acquires two electrons and a proton (reduction=reduction) into NADH
NADH – carries two electrons for supply to other molecules. Important for metabolism
Carbon & Hydrogen Bond Stripped during Glycolysis and Krebs
Electron Transport Chain ( ETC)
Electron Transport Chain – located in the mito inner membrane (made up or F1, ATPase), produces a proton gradient, pumps protons (H+) across the membrane from the matrix to the inner membrane space. The H+ then moves via diffusion, (Proton Motive Force)-THEN (ATP Synthase) =ATP. All NAHD (FADH2) converted to ATP.
Each NADH converts to 3 ATP
Each FADH2 coverts to 2 ATP
Glycolysis (Pyruvate dependent on oxygen)(converts glucose to Pyruvate)
Addition of energy, two energy phosphates
STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS to Pyruvate Oxidation and Acetyl-Coa
10 step cycle with oxygen
Energy Investment Phase (prep phase, first 5 steps)
Energy Yielding Phase (energy pay off stage, second 5 steps)
***Glucose AIM - ( 6 carbon converted to 3 Pyruvate) ***
-----2 ATP consumed (priming the pump) –
-----Later generates 4 ATP (NET GAIN 2 ATP)
-----2 NADHs
Glucose
Fructose, 6 phosphates
ATP Inhibits / ADP Activates / Citrate Inhibits
1 Fructose, 6 bisphosphate
Pyruvate ( Pie – Vuu – Vate) ( need for Kerbs)
Pyruvate Oxidation
NADH Inhibits
Acetyl-Coa ( a see tel Co_A)************
Enters Krebs (products NADH,Citrate(ETC electron transport chain, ATP) (chemiosmosis)
Krebs Cycle Dr Krebs
Oxidizes the Acetyl-Coa ( from Pyruvate)
2 carbons + 4 carbons = 6 carbons
After Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs Glucose has be oxidized to
6 CO^2
4 ATP
10 NADH *********
2 FADH^2 Both continue to the electron transport chain ******
Anaerobic - without air (without oxygen) Absence of electron acceptor like as nitrate, sulphate or oxygen. Inorganic molecule (other than oxygen), CO2 is reduced to methane
Aerobic – means with oxygen, Glycolysis is able to make Pyruvate, which product is Acetyl-CoA, then that enters the Krebs Cycle
Fermentation – Organic molecule as final electron acceptor.
NAD+ - an important electron carrier (AMP)
When NAD+ acquires two electrons and a proton (reduction=reduction) into NADH
NADH – carries two electrons for supply to other molecules. Important for metabolism
Carbon & Hydrogen Bond Stripped during Glycolysis and Krebs
Electron Transport Chain ( ETC)
Electron Transport Chain – located in the mito inner membrane (made up or F1, ATPase), produces a proton gradient, pumps protons (H+) across the membrane from the matrix to the inner membrane space. The H+ then moves via diffusion, (Proton Motive Force)-THEN (ATP Synthase) =ATP. All NAHD (FADH2) converted to ATP.
Each NADH converts to 3 ATP
Each FADH2 coverts to 2 ATP
Glycolysis (Pyruvate dependent on oxygen)(converts glucose to Pyruvate)
Addition of energy, two energy phosphates
STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS to Pyruvate Oxidation and Acetyl-Coa
10 step cycle with oxygen
Energy Investment Phase (prep phase, first 5 steps)
Energy Yielding Phase (energy pay off stage, second 5 steps)
***Glucose AIM - ( 6 carbon converted to 3 Pyruvate) ***
-----2 ATP consumed (priming the pump) –
-----Later generates 4 ATP (NET GAIN 2 ATP)
-----2 NADHs
Glucose
Fructose, 6 phosphates
ATP Inhibits / ADP Activates / Citrate Inhibits
1 Fructose, 6 bisphosphate
Pyruvate ( Pie – Vuu – Vate) ( need for Kerbs)
Pyruvate Oxidation
NADH Inhibits
Acetyl-Coa ( a see tel Co_A)************
Enters Krebs (products NADH,Citrate(ETC electron transport chain, ATP) (chemiosmosis)
Krebs Cycle Dr Krebs
Oxidizes the Acetyl-Coa ( from Pyruvate)
2 carbons + 4 carbons = 6 carbons
After Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs Glucose has be oxidized to
6 CO^2
4 ATP
10 NADH *********
2 FADH^2 Both continue to the electron transport chain ******
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