Test Review Chapters 43, 47, 48
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Are you enjoying my college 2410/2420 biology lecture and lab blog?
Tuesday, July 28, 2009
Biology Vocab
Test Review Chapters 43, 47, 48
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Monday, July 27, 2009
Slides
Lilly ovary Lilly Ovary
Lilly pollen Lilly Pollen
Anther
Vascular Bundle (
Dicot Stem Dicot Stem
Old Stem
Young Stem
Monocot Stem Monocot Stem
monocot root
megasporangium
Lilly pollen Lilly Pollen
Anther
Vascular Bundle (
Dicot Stem Dicot Stem
Old Stem
Young Stem
Monocot Stem Monocot Stem
monocot root
megasporangium
Friday, July 24, 2009
WHY ME!!
Tissues – groups of cells that are similar in structure and function, originate from three embryonic tissues called germ layers.
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Germ Layers –
1. Endoderm – digestive tract tissue
2. Mesoderm – blood vessels
3. Ectoderm - skin
4 types of Primary Tissue
1. Epithelial
2. Connective
3. Muscle
4. Nerve
Vertebrate Body-
Dorsal Cavity – Within skull in lower back
Ventral Cavity – large than dorsal cavity, Start at the rib cage end at pelvis
Thoracic cavity – heart and lungs
Abdominopelvic – most organs, stomach, intestines, liver, kidneys and bladder
Peritineal Cavity – inner part of the adominopelvic (coelomic space)
Pericardial Cavity – Around the heart
Pleural Cavity – Around the lungs
Epithelial Tissue – covers every surface of the body, any forms of the three embryonic tissue, same tissue changes into glands, which are used from secretion, provides protects, gets rid of toxin in the digestive tissue, diffusion in the lungs, regenerates quickly, POLARITY,
Simple – single layer, one cell thick, lungs and blood capillaries
Stratified – multiple layers, skin
Keratin – water resistant protein, forms calluses
Lips – nonkeratin, stratified squamous epithelial
Squamous – Flat, very thin cells,
Cuboidal – cube shaped , line kidneys, ovaries and glands
Columnar – Column shaped, simple columnar contain goblet cells (secrete mucus,
Basal Surface – secured side of connective tissue
Apical Surface – Free side of (
Exocrine Glands – Exocrine glands are glands that secrete into ducts, then into epithelial, sweat and salivary glands
Endocrine Glands – ductless glands, no attachment to epithelial, secreted directly into the blood capillaries, hormones
Connective Tissue - Comes from MESODERM embryonic cells, cells are spaced far apart, cause of the extra cellular material called the matrix,
Matrix in bone makes it hard, the matrix is blood is plasma,
Ground Substance -Matrix consists of protein fibers and ground substance (the material between cells and fibers containing proteins and polysaccharides
Fibroblast – produce and secrete the matrix
Connective tissue proper – LOOSE OF DENSE
Loose connective tissue – cells that are scatted within the matrix that contains LARGE amounts of ground substances, contain collagen. elastin and reticulin, ADIPOSE cells (fat fells) are found in loose connective tissue
Adipose cells – can not divide, contains a drop of triglycerides within a storage vesicle
Dense connective tissue - less ground substance, tightly packaged collagen fibers, stronger than loose
Connective Tissue Proper
Dense Connective Tissue
1. Regular Dense Connective Tissue - run parallel (TENDONS,LIGAMENTS)
2. Irregular Dense Connective Tissue – collagen fibers line up differently (covers kidney, nerves, and bones)
Organ coverings – capsules
Muscle coverings – epimysium
Nerve covering – perineurium
Bone covering – periosteum
Special Connective tissue – BONE, CARTILAGE, BLOOD
Cartilage – special connective tissue, fibers are laid down in long parallel arrays, firm and flexible, mode up of glycoprotein, called CHONDROITIN, does not stretch, tip of nose, outer ear, disks of backbone, the larynx, well hydrated
Chondrocytes – the cells of cartilage, live within spaces called LACUNAE (ground substance), no blood vessels within the cartilage matrix
Special Connective tissue
Bone – first cartilage, cartilage matrix, chondrocytes are no longer to obtain oxygen and nutrients via diffusion, cells called osteocytes, alive cells, but hard with crystals of calcium phosphate, IS made up of multiple layers of LAMELLEA, laid down HAVERSIAN canals that run parallel to the length of the bone, HAVERSIAN cancels contain nerve fibers and blood vessels.
Osteocytes - blood vessels are in the bone to provide nutrients and removes waste via canals called canaliculi,
Osteoblasts – secrete collagen organic matrix, then calcium phosphate is deposited, cells then encased in spaces called lacunae, in the calcium rich matrix.
BLOOD – Special connective tissue!! Contains a lot of extra cellular material, plasma and platelets,
Erythrocytes – Hemoglobin (RED BLOOD CELLS)
Leukocytes – have nuclei, and mitochondria, NO HEMOGLOBIN (WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
MUSCLE – contain ACTIN and MYOSIN filaments
Smooth – visceral muscle, found in walls of blood vessels, spindle shaped cells, mono-nucleated (single nucleus)
Skeletal – attached to bone and tendons, causes movement, made up of numerous MUSCLE FIBERS (multi nucleoli) , contractions by neurons, controlled by NERVOUS system,
MYOFIBRILS – contractions caused by myofibrils, which contain ordered actin and myosin filaments
Cardiac – striated muscles (heart), smaller interconnected cells, each with a single nucleus, interconnections appear as dark lines called INTERCALATED DISKS (single function unit)
Nerve Tissue - made up of neurons and neuroglia
3 parts of neurons
Cell Body- contains the nucleus
Dendrites – highly branched extensions that receive electrical impulses toward the cell body
Axon – single cytoplasmic extension, conducts impulses AWAY from the cell body, associated with Neuroglia
Neuroglia - support cells, DO NO conduct electrical impulses, support and insulate neurons, insulation called MYELIN SHEATH, gaps know as NODES OF RANVIER, eliminate foreign materials in and around the neurons.
NODES OF RANVIER – involved in acceleration of impulses
Nerve Tissue System
Central Nervous System – Brain and Spinal Cord, involved in input of the senses
Peripheral Nervous System – Nerves and Ganglia (collection of cell bodies) communicated to the rest of the body, like the CNS, muscles cells and Endocrine Glands
Overview of Organ Systems –
Communication and Integration
Nervous System, Sensory and Endocrine Systems all detect external stimuli and coordinate the body’s response.
Support and Movement
Musculoskeletal system – controlled movements
Regulation and Maintenance
Digestive, Circulatory, Respiratory, and Urinary Systems
Defense
Integumentary and immune
Reproduction and Development
Reproductive System
Homeostasis
Body condition must remain relatively constant, essential for life, uses NEGATIVE FEEDBACK mechanisms, changes are detected by SENSORS, information is then feed to INTEGRATION CENTER, also called COMPARATOR (brain, spinal cord, and endocrine glands), body wants to always stay at the SET POINT
Effector – if a deviation is detected, message send to the EFFECTOR (muscle or gland), increases or decreases back to SET POINT,
ENDOTHERMIC – humans are endothermic, maintain a constant body temperature
HYPOTHALAMUS – changes in body detected by HYPOTHALAMUS in the brain, if hypothalamus detects a drop in body tempuerature, muscles shiver, if hypothalamus detects an increase of temperature, the body sweats
Antagonistic Effectors – **push- pull action** to maintain a finer degree of control, one EFFECTOR is increased or decreased, they accompany each other , responsible for control of body temperature,
Positive Feedback – do not maintain homeostasis, examples – blood clotting, contractions during childbirth
Friday, July 17, 2009
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1. Cellular respiration
1. Cellular respiration is a complex mechanism whereby large numbers of ATPs are produced via the utilization of an inorganic final electron acceptor and an electron transport chain.
2. Aerobic and anaerobic:
1. Cellular respiration comes in two general varieties distinguished by the nature of their inorganic final electron acceptor: oxygen versus everything else.
2. These two forms of cellular respiration are dubbed aerobic and anaerobic respiration (or cellular respiration), respectively.
2. Aerobic respiration
1. Cellular respiration in which oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Aerobic respiration is by far and away the more common form of cellular respiration.
3. Anaerobic respiration
1. No oxygen, yes electron transport chain:
1. Cellular respiration in which something other than oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Examples of non-oxygen final electron acceptors include:
3. nitrate, NO3-, which is converted to nitrite, nitrous oxide, or nitrogen [NO21-, N2O, and N2, respectively] in the process
4. sulfate, (SO42-, which is converted to hydrogen sulfide, H2S
5. carbonate, CO32-, which is converted to methane, CH4
2. Anaerobic respiration doesn't result in as much ATP production as when oxygen is the final electron receptor.
3. Nevertheless, organisms (i.e., bacteria) that use anaerobic respiration occupy important niches and, indeed, exploit niches that organisms which require aerobic respiration cannot exploit and therefore cannot compete for.
4. Products of glycolysis
1. Glycolysis is cytoplasmic:
1. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells.
2. Glycolysis also occurs in the cytoplasm of bacteria.
2. NADH and pyruvate:
1. Besides ATP, the two important products of glycolysis are NADH and pyruvate.
2. When oxygen is lacking, both products are sacrificed to the process of fermentation in order to regenerate NAD+.
3. In organisms capable of undergoing cellular respiration, however, both NADH and pyruvate may be further oxidized to generate additional ATP.
4. These further steps are performed within mitochondria in eucaryotes.
3. Bacteria do it all cytoplasmically:
1. Within bacteria possessing electron transport systems, both glycolysis and cellular respiration take place in their cytoplasms.
2. This differs from the doings of eucaryotes because eucaryotes have literally co-opted bacteria--a.k.a. mitochondria--to perform their cellular respiration).
5. NADH into mitochondria
1. Active NADH transport into mitochondria:
1. The NADH product of glycolysis may be utilized in cellular respiration given transport of the NADH into mitochondria (procaryotes, of course, don't have this problem).
2. This transfer costs eucaryotic cells one ATP.
6. Acetyl-CoA [coenzyme A]
1. Central metabolic intermediate:
1. A central molecule in cellular respiration, one to which all proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates must be converted prior to participation in cellular respiration.
2. The fate of acetyl-CoA is dependent upon ATP needs. When ATP is prevalent, acetyl-CoA serves as the basis for fatty acid synthesis, which forms the basis of your body's long-term energy storage: triglycerides (i.e., fat).
3. Alternatively, acetyl-CoA may enter the Kreb's citric acid cycle.
2. Structure of acetyl-CoA:
1. Structurally, acetyl-CoA consists of a two carbon group attached to a coenzyme (coenzyme A). That is, an acetyl group has the following structure:
|
H3C-C=O
7. Note the unpaired electron on top of the first carbon (i.e., that attached to the double-bonded oxygen) which is bound to coenzyme A in acetyl-CoA. Coenzyme A is far more complex and based upon an ADP core. See figure 1100.1.
8. Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
1. Pyruvate is transported into mitochondria at no apparent energy cost.
2. There it is converted into acetyl-CoA with the following stoichiometry: pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA à acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO2
9. Kreb's (citric acid, tricarboxylic acid) cycle
1. A multi-step reaction during which an acetyl group is completely oxidized to CO2 . . .
2. . . . and reducing hydrogens.
3. This oxidation is analogous, and in some ways mechanistically similar to the oxidation of glucose in glycolysis through pyruvate and acetyl-CoA formation. That is:
1. reducing hydrogens are accumulated in NADH
2. some ATP is generated
3. there is a reduction in carbon number, though here this is effected through liberation of carbon dioxide
4. In the Kreb's cycle there is an electron acceptor in addition to NAD+ called FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide; which is converted to FADH2 in the course of reduction).
5. Overall, the Kreb's cycle has the following stoichiometry:
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + 2H2O + ADP + Pi + 3NAD+ + FAD à oxaloacetate + 2CO2 + CoA + ATP + 3NADH + 3H+ + 2"FADH2
10. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle (simplified outline)
1. Below is a greatly simplified outline of the Kreb's cycle to give you a very basic idea of the reactions involved0:
1. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
2. C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
3. C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2"FADH2 + ATP + CO2
4. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
5. etc. . . .
2. Note that:
1. C4 in its final form (as shown above) is oxaloacetate (recall that the above is a gross over-simplification and thus C4 compounds in the Kreb's cycle also include, in order, succinyl-CoA, succinic acid, fumaric acid, and malic acid)
2. C6 is citric acid (as well as a number of other compounds as it is successively converted to including cis-aconitic acid, isocitric acid, and oxalosuccinic acid)
3. C2-CoA is, of course, acetyl-CoA.
4. C5, on the other hand, represents just a-ketoglutaric acid.
11. Structures of Kreb's cycle intermediates
1. C6: citric acid (note: H2O is gained, acetyl-CoA is added to oxaloacetate, and coenzyme-A is lost in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
2.
C6: cis-aconitic acid (cis-acontate) (note: H2O is lost to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
3.
C6: isocitric acid (isocitrate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
4.
C6: oxalosuccinic acid (oxalosuccinate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
5.
C5: a-Ketoglutaric acid (alpha-ketoglutarate) (note: CO2 is lost in the making of this intermediate):
HOOC-C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
6.
C4: succinyl-CoA (note: CO2 is lost, NAD+ reduced, and coenzyme A added in the making of this intermediate--this step should remind you of the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA):
coenzyme-A
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
7.
C4: succinic acid (succinate) (note: in the making of this intermediate sufficient energy is liberated to phosphorylate ADP thus producing one ATP):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
8.
C4: fumaric acid (fumarate) (note: FAD is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
H
9.
C4: malic acid (malate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
H
10.
C4: oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
H
12.
Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
1. As with glycolysis, continued cycling of the Kreb's cycle depends on the regeneration of NAD+ and FAD.
2. Unlike fermentation, cellular respiration has a means of extracting the energy in the reduced molecules (NADH and 2"FADH2).
3. In fact, this energy extraction procedure employs an electron transport system, has a molecular oxygen terminal electron acceptor, and is employed to generate ATP via a process called chemiosmosis.
13. Electron transport system [chain]
1. A series of oxidizing and reducing molecules (proteins and other) found in the inner membrane of mitochondria as well as all bacteria capable of undergoing cellular respiration.
2. Electron transport chains convert the energy associated with reduced electrons, liberated in the conversion of NADH to NAD+ (and 2"FADH2 to FAD), to protons (H+) pumped from the mitochondria matrix (for example) to the mitochondria outer compartment.
3. high [H+] out, low in (matrix)
4. As electrons are transported along this chain of electron donors and acceptors they incrementally lose energy (which, as noted, is harnessed in the pumping of protons out of the mitochondria matrix).
5. The final acceptor of the electrons, in aerobic respiration, is molecular oxygen, a matrix reaction which serves to increase the proton concentration gradient across the mitochondria inner membrane: 4H+ + 4e- + O2 à 2H2O
6. Absolute dependence on final electron acceptor:
1. Note that in the absence of a final electron acceptor, cellular respiration stops.
2. Note also that for humans and other aerobic respirators, this means that cellular respiration cannot occur in the absence of oxygen.
14. Chemiosmosis
1. The pumping of protons from the mitochondria matrix into the mitochondria outer compartment establishes a concentration gradient.
2. Influx coupled to ATP synthesis:
1. This concentration gradient may be harnessed though coupling with the facilitated diffusion of these protons back into the matrix.
2. In fact, this facilitated diffusion is harnessed (via a proton-pump running in reverse; for an idea of how a proton-pump might work see how a sodium-potassium pump pumps sodium ions) to generate ATP in a process known as chemiosmosis.
3. The stoichiometry of chemiosmosis and electron transport chain (ETS) pumping is:
9H+ (matrix) + NADH
--(ETS)--
NAD+ + 9H+ (outer compartment)
6H+ (matrix) + 2"FADH2
--(ETS)--
FAD + 9H+ (outer compartment)
3H+ (outer compartment) + ADP + Pi
--(with concentration gradient)--
3H+ (matrix) + ATP
15. Vocabulary
1. Acetyl-CoA
2. Active transport of NADH into mitochondria
3. Aerobic respiration
4. Anaerobic respiration
5. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle
6. Cellular respiration
7. Chemiosmosis
8. Citric acid
9. Conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA
10. Electron transport chain
11. FAD
12. 2"FADH2
13. Kreb's cycle
14. Kreb's citric acid cycle
15. Oxaloacetate
16. Regeneration of FAD
17. Regeneration of NAD+
18. Tricarboxylic acid cycle
16. Practice questions
1. Which is the least reduced (circle correct answer): [PEEK]
(i) (ii) (iii)
H H
| |
HOOC-C=O HOOC-C-OH HOOC-C-H
| | |
HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-OH
| | |
HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H
| | |
H H H
(iv) no difference
1. What's the next reaction (i.e., involving C4)? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
(1) C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
(2) C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
(3) C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + FADH2 + ATP + CO2
(4) ???
2. What two products of glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria thus allowing eucaryotes to generate more than two ATP per glucose? [PEEK]
3. What happens to acetyl-CoA if a cell already has sufficient quantities of ATP? [PEEK]
4. Fill in the missing numbers to produce a stoichiometrically correct overall Kreb's cycle: [PEEK]
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + H2O +
___ ADP + ___ Pi + ___ NAD+ + ___ FAD à
oxaloacetate + ___ CO2 + CoA + ___
ATP + ___ NADH + ___ H+ + ___ FADH2
5. The following molecule is? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
OH
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
C=O
|
C=O
|
O- Na+
1. Oxaloacetate
2. NADH
3. glucose 6-phosphate
4. citric acid
5. FADH2
6. pyruvate
7. all of the above
8. none of the above
6. Draw citric acid. [PEEK]
7. In eucaryotes, how many gross (i.e., ignore priming and transport costs) additional ATPs are produced per glucose via chemiosmosis? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 1
2. 11
3. 22
4. 34
5. 36
6. 38
7. 40
8. 42
8. Based on your limited knowledge of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and considering only those electrons which are routinely lost and gained, which of the following compounds would you say is the most reduced? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. NADH
2. NAD+
3. FADH2
4. FAD
5. all are equivalent
9. What is the following: [PEEK]
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1. pyruvic acid
2. ascorbic acid
3. citric acid
4. benzoic acid
5. oxaloacetic acid
6. none of the above
1. I mentioned in class that certain Pseudomonas species are responsible for the conversion of fixed nitrogen to molecular nitrogen in anaerobic soils, particularly those soaked with water. They do this by employing nitrate (NO3-) as a final electron acceptor. What is a general name for this process whereby an inorganic substance is employed as a final electron acceptor in an anaerobic environment? [PEEK]
2. Name two differences between respiration and fermentation.[PEEK]
3. In aerobic respiration, what is the final electron acceptor[PEEK]
4. Which two of the following are composed of, in part or in whole, of a three carbon core such as that found in glycerol (shown below)? [PEEK]
OH OH OH
| | |
H - C - C - C - H
| | |
H H H
(circle both correct answers below)
1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb's cycle
3. phospholipids
4. tricarboxylic acid
5. inorganic phosphate
6. sterols
5. Start with one Glucose. At the end of glycolysis but prior to acetyl CoA production (and prior to the Kreb's cycle, and prior to electron transfer, and prior to chemiosmosis, i.e., in solving this problem ignore all other aspects of cellular respiration other than the transport of glycolytic products into the mitochondria), if all of the glycolytic products which normally find their way into the mitochondria are now there, what is the up to this moment net yield of ATP? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. more than four.
6. How many carbon dioxides are produced per individual turn of the Kreb's citric acid cycle (i.e., starting with one acetyl-CoA and one oxaloacetate and ending with one oxaloacetate)? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. 5.
7. 6.
8. more than 6.
7. Just considering numbers of carbon atoms (and ignoring ADPs, ATPs, NAD+, NADH, FAD, FADH2, various enzymes, and other structural components of the cell), glycolysis and then the Kreb's cycle progress via (non-carbon dioxide) carbon containing compound intermediates having __________ carbon atoms each (note: ignore isomerizations as well as other changes in compounds which do no result in changes in carbon number). (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and then 1.
2. 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
3. 6, 7, 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
4. 6 and then 2.
5. 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
6. 6, 4, 2, 6, and then 4.
7. 6, 2, 4, and then 6.
8. The total ATP produced (i.e., gross--ignore priming costs and transport costs), as a consequence of both substrate level phosphrolylation and chemiosmosis, as a consequence of (i) glycolysis, (ii) acetyl-CoA production, (iii) Kreb's cycle, (iv) substrate-level phosphorylation-only, and (v) chemiosmosis-only, all per one starting glucose, is __________ ATPs, repectively. (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 4, 12, 18, 3, and 24.
2. 8, 4, 22, 5, and 30.
3. 6, 2, 20, 4, and 28.
4. 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
5. 2, 8, 16, 2, and 20.
6. 0, 6, 14, 1, and 16.
9. Name two ways fermentation differs from anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
10. Name three possible byproducts of ATP generation. [PEEK]
11. "__________," is one similarity between fermentation and anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
1. both occur purely in the cytoplasm.
2. both are a feature of obligate aerobes.
3. both occur only in eucaryotes.
4. both regenerate NAD+.
5. both require oxygen.
6. humans are capable of doing both.
1. Practice question answers
1. i is the answer (structure on left). These are all Kreb's cycle intermediates. The one in the middle is isocitric acid while the one on the left is oxalosuccinic acid. Citric acid is on the far right. Note that, in the course of the Kreb's cycle, citric acid is converted to isocitric acid which is then converted to oxalosuccinic acid, the latter reaction results in NAD+ being reduced to NADH + H+. Thus, the most oxidized (i.e., least reduced) is the compound on the left, oxalosuccinic acid. Regardless, the intermediates to oxalosuccinic acids (middle and far right) both have more hydrogens thus suggesting a greater level of reduction.
2. Same as first reaction (1), C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
3. pyruvate and NADH
4. storage fats are made
5. all are ones except in front of CO2 which is a two and in front of NAD+, NADH, and H+ which are all threes.
6. i, oxaloacetate
7. tricarboxylic acid:
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1.
2. iv, per pyruvate there is 1 NADH + H+ from glycolysis + 1 NADH + H+ from acetyl-CoA formation + 3 NADH + H+ from the Kreb's citric acid cycle + 1 FADH2 from the Kreb's citric acid cycle. Given 3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP through FADH2 following electron transport and chemiosmosis, that's (5 * 3) + 2 ATP = 17 ATP per pyruvate or a 34 ATP per glucose gross yield from chemiosmosis. Of course we lose 2 ATP for the transport of 2 NADHs into the mitochondria, so the net gain is 32 ATP from chemiosmosis. Note that two additional ATPs come from glycolysis and substrate level phosphorylation during the Kreb's cycle bring the total net ATP yield to 36 per glucose in eucoryotes. i, NADH. The easy way to figure this out is to note how many ATPs each species is worth upon access to an electron transport chain in a mitochondria: 3, 0, 2, and 0 for NADH, NAD+, FADH2, and FAD.
3. iii, citric acid
4. anaerobic respiration
5. Respiration makes lots of ATP, uses inorganic final electron acceptors (such as molecular oxygen), and uses an electron transport chain. Fermentation makes only a little ATP, does not use an electron transport chain, and uses organic final electron acceptors. Note that in either case "waste" molecules are given off into the environment (CO2 is the waste molecule in the case of aerobic respiration).
6. Oxygen
7. i and iii, glycolysis (a number of intermediates) and phospholipids (a glycerol derivative forms the central core)
8. i, 0; recall that only two net ATP are produced by glycolysis, but that these are both employed in the transport of NADH into the mitochondria.
9. iii, 2; remember, each turn of the Kreb's cycle converts a six carbon molecule to a four carbon molecule with each carbon lost as a CO(2).
10. v, 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
11. iv, 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
12. organic final electron acceptor rather than inorganic, less ATP versus more, production of organic waste versus lack of production of organic waste, lack of use of electron transport system versus use of, ATPs generated by substrate level phosphorylation versus ATPs mostly generated by chemiosmosis, lack of chemiosmosis versus chemiosmosis, etc.
13. H2O, various non-oxygen inorganic electron acceptors including nitrogen gas, NADH, fermentation products including: lactic acid, ethanol, CO2, acetone, formic acid, H+.
14. iv, both regenerate NAD+.
1. References
1. Raven, P.H., Johnson, G.B. (1995). Biology (updated version). Third Edition. Wm. C. Brown publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. pp. 153-178.
1. Cellular respiration is a complex mechanism whereby large numbers of ATPs are produced via the utilization of an inorganic final electron acceptor and an electron transport chain.
2. Aerobic and anaerobic:
1. Cellular respiration comes in two general varieties distinguished by the nature of their inorganic final electron acceptor: oxygen versus everything else.
2. These two forms of cellular respiration are dubbed aerobic and anaerobic respiration (or cellular respiration), respectively.
2. Aerobic respiration
1. Cellular respiration in which oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Aerobic respiration is by far and away the more common form of cellular respiration.
3. Anaerobic respiration
1. No oxygen, yes electron transport chain:
1. Cellular respiration in which something other than oxygen serves as the final electron acceptor.
2. Examples of non-oxygen final electron acceptors include:
3. nitrate, NO3-, which is converted to nitrite, nitrous oxide, or nitrogen [NO21-, N2O, and N2, respectively] in the process
4. sulfate, (SO42-, which is converted to hydrogen sulfide, H2S
5. carbonate, CO32-, which is converted to methane, CH4
2. Anaerobic respiration doesn't result in as much ATP production as when oxygen is the final electron receptor.
3. Nevertheless, organisms (i.e., bacteria) that use anaerobic respiration occupy important niches and, indeed, exploit niches that organisms which require aerobic respiration cannot exploit and therefore cannot compete for.
4. Products of glycolysis
1. Glycolysis is cytoplasmic:
1. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of eucaryotic cells.
2. Glycolysis also occurs in the cytoplasm of bacteria.
2. NADH and pyruvate:
1. Besides ATP, the two important products of glycolysis are NADH and pyruvate.
2. When oxygen is lacking, both products are sacrificed to the process of fermentation in order to regenerate NAD+.
3. In organisms capable of undergoing cellular respiration, however, both NADH and pyruvate may be further oxidized to generate additional ATP.
4. These further steps are performed within mitochondria in eucaryotes.
3. Bacteria do it all cytoplasmically:
1. Within bacteria possessing electron transport systems, both glycolysis and cellular respiration take place in their cytoplasms.
2. This differs from the doings of eucaryotes because eucaryotes have literally co-opted bacteria--a.k.a. mitochondria--to perform their cellular respiration).
5. NADH into mitochondria
1. Active NADH transport into mitochondria:
1. The NADH product of glycolysis may be utilized in cellular respiration given transport of the NADH into mitochondria (procaryotes, of course, don't have this problem).
2. This transfer costs eucaryotic cells one ATP.
6. Acetyl-CoA [coenzyme A]
1. Central metabolic intermediate:
1. A central molecule in cellular respiration, one to which all proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates must be converted prior to participation in cellular respiration.
2. The fate of acetyl-CoA is dependent upon ATP needs. When ATP is prevalent, acetyl-CoA serves as the basis for fatty acid synthesis, which forms the basis of your body's long-term energy storage: triglycerides (i.e., fat).
3. Alternatively, acetyl-CoA may enter the Kreb's citric acid cycle.
2. Structure of acetyl-CoA:
1. Structurally, acetyl-CoA consists of a two carbon group attached to a coenzyme (coenzyme A). That is, an acetyl group has the following structure:
|
H3C-C=O
7. Note the unpaired electron on top of the first carbon (i.e., that attached to the double-bonded oxygen) which is bound to coenzyme A in acetyl-CoA. Coenzyme A is far more complex and based upon an ADP core. See figure 1100.1.
8. Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
1. Pyruvate is transported into mitochondria at no apparent energy cost.
2. There it is converted into acetyl-CoA with the following stoichiometry: pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA à acetyl-CoA + NADH + CO2
9. Kreb's (citric acid, tricarboxylic acid) cycle
1. A multi-step reaction during which an acetyl group is completely oxidized to CO2 . . .
2. . . . and reducing hydrogens.
3. This oxidation is analogous, and in some ways mechanistically similar to the oxidation of glucose in glycolysis through pyruvate and acetyl-CoA formation. That is:
1. reducing hydrogens are accumulated in NADH
2. some ATP is generated
3. there is a reduction in carbon number, though here this is effected through liberation of carbon dioxide
4. In the Kreb's cycle there is an electron acceptor in addition to NAD+ called FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide; which is converted to FADH2 in the course of reduction).
5. Overall, the Kreb's cycle has the following stoichiometry:
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + 2H2O + ADP + Pi + 3NAD+ + FAD à oxaloacetate + 2CO2 + CoA + ATP + 3NADH + 3H+ + 2"FADH2
10. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle (simplified outline)
1. Below is a greatly simplified outline of the Kreb's cycle to give you a very basic idea of the reactions involved0:
1. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
2. C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
3. C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2"FADH2 + ATP + CO2
4. C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
5. etc. . . .
2. Note that:
1. C4 in its final form (as shown above) is oxaloacetate (recall that the above is a gross over-simplification and thus C4 compounds in the Kreb's cycle also include, in order, succinyl-CoA, succinic acid, fumaric acid, and malic acid)
2. C6 is citric acid (as well as a number of other compounds as it is successively converted to including cis-aconitic acid, isocitric acid, and oxalosuccinic acid)
3. C2-CoA is, of course, acetyl-CoA.
4. C5, on the other hand, represents just a-ketoglutaric acid.
11. Structures of Kreb's cycle intermediates
1. C6: citric acid (note: H2O is gained, acetyl-CoA is added to oxaloacetate, and coenzyme-A is lost in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
2.
C6: cis-aconitic acid (cis-acontate) (note: H2O is lost to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
3.
C6: isocitric acid (isocitrate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
4.
C6: oxalosuccinic acid (oxalosuccinate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
5.
C5: a-Ketoglutaric acid (alpha-ketoglutarate) (note: CO2 is lost in the making of this intermediate):
HOOC-C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
6.
C4: succinyl-CoA (note: CO2 is lost, NAD+ reduced, and coenzyme A added in the making of this intermediate--this step should remind you of the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA):
coenzyme-A
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
7.
C4: succinic acid (succinate) (note: in the making of this intermediate sufficient energy is liberated to phosphorylate ADP thus producing one ATP):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
8.
C4: fumaric acid (fumarate) (note: FAD is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C
||
HOOC-C
|
H
9.
C4: malic acid (malate) (note: H2O is gained to make this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
H
10.
C4: oxaloacetic acid (oxaloacetate) (note: NAD+ is reduced in the making of this intermediate):
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C=O
|
H
12.
Regeneration of NAD+ and FAD
1. As with glycolysis, continued cycling of the Kreb's cycle depends on the regeneration of NAD+ and FAD.
2. Unlike fermentation, cellular respiration has a means of extracting the energy in the reduced molecules (NADH and 2"FADH2).
3. In fact, this energy extraction procedure employs an electron transport system, has a molecular oxygen terminal electron acceptor, and is employed to generate ATP via a process called chemiosmosis.
13. Electron transport system [chain]
1. A series of oxidizing and reducing molecules (proteins and other) found in the inner membrane of mitochondria as well as all bacteria capable of undergoing cellular respiration.
2. Electron transport chains convert the energy associated with reduced electrons, liberated in the conversion of NADH to NAD+ (and 2"FADH2 to FAD), to protons (H+) pumped from the mitochondria matrix (for example) to the mitochondria outer compartment.
3. high [H+] out, low in (matrix)
4. As electrons are transported along this chain of electron donors and acceptors they incrementally lose energy (which, as noted, is harnessed in the pumping of protons out of the mitochondria matrix).
5. The final acceptor of the electrons, in aerobic respiration, is molecular oxygen, a matrix reaction which serves to increase the proton concentration gradient across the mitochondria inner membrane: 4H+ + 4e- + O2 à 2H2O
6. Absolute dependence on final electron acceptor:
1. Note that in the absence of a final electron acceptor, cellular respiration stops.
2. Note also that for humans and other aerobic respirators, this means that cellular respiration cannot occur in the absence of oxygen.
14. Chemiosmosis
1. The pumping of protons from the mitochondria matrix into the mitochondria outer compartment establishes a concentration gradient.
2. Influx coupled to ATP synthesis:
1. This concentration gradient may be harnessed though coupling with the facilitated diffusion of these protons back into the matrix.
2. In fact, this facilitated diffusion is harnessed (via a proton-pump running in reverse; for an idea of how a proton-pump might work see how a sodium-potassium pump pumps sodium ions) to generate ATP in a process known as chemiosmosis.
3. The stoichiometry of chemiosmosis and electron transport chain (ETS) pumping is:
9H+ (matrix) + NADH
--(ETS)--
NAD+ + 9H+ (outer compartment)
6H+ (matrix) + 2"FADH2
--(ETS)--
FAD + 9H+ (outer compartment)
3H+ (outer compartment) + ADP + Pi
--(with concentration gradient)--
3H+ (matrix) + ATP
15. Vocabulary
1. Acetyl-CoA
2. Active transport of NADH into mitochondria
3. Aerobic respiration
4. Anaerobic respiration
5. Biochemistry of Kreb's cycle
6. Cellular respiration
7. Chemiosmosis
8. Citric acid
9. Conversion of pyruvate into acetyl-CoA
10. Electron transport chain
11. FAD
12. 2"FADH2
13. Kreb's cycle
14. Kreb's citric acid cycle
15. Oxaloacetate
16. Regeneration of FAD
17. Regeneration of NAD+
18. Tricarboxylic acid cycle
16. Practice questions
1. Which is the least reduced (circle correct answer): [PEEK]
(i) (ii) (iii)
H H
| |
HOOC-C=O HOOC-C-OH HOOC-C-H
| | |
HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-H or HOOC-C-OH
| | |
HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H HOOC-C-H
| | |
H H H
(iv) no difference
1. What's the next reaction (i.e., involving C4)? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
(1) C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
(2) C6 + NAD+ à C5 + NADH + H+ + CO2
(3) C5 + 2NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi + H2O à C4 + 2NADH + 2H+ + FADH2 + ATP + CO2
(4) ???
2. What two products of glycolysis are transported into the mitochondria thus allowing eucaryotes to generate more than two ATP per glucose? [PEEK]
3. What happens to acetyl-CoA if a cell already has sufficient quantities of ATP? [PEEK]
4. Fill in the missing numbers to produce a stoichiometrically correct overall Kreb's cycle: [PEEK]
oxaloacetate + acetyl-CoA + H2O +
___ ADP + ___ Pi + ___ NAD+ + ___ FAD à
oxaloacetate + ___ CO2 + CoA + ___
ATP + ___ NADH + ___ H+ + ___ FADH2
5. The following molecule is? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
OH
|
C=O
|
H-C-H
|
C=O
|
C=O
|
O- Na+
1. Oxaloacetate
2. NADH
3. glucose 6-phosphate
4. citric acid
5. FADH2
6. pyruvate
7. all of the above
8. none of the above
6. Draw citric acid. [PEEK]
7. In eucaryotes, how many gross (i.e., ignore priming and transport costs) additional ATPs are produced per glucose via chemiosmosis? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 1
2. 11
3. 22
4. 34
5. 36
6. 38
7. 40
8. 42
8. Based on your limited knowledge of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, and considering only those electrons which are routinely lost and gained, which of the following compounds would you say is the most reduced? (circle correct answer) [PEEK]
1. NADH
2. NAD+
3. FADH2
4. FAD
5. all are equivalent
9. What is the following: [PEEK]
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1. pyruvic acid
2. ascorbic acid
3. citric acid
4. benzoic acid
5. oxaloacetic acid
6. none of the above
1. I mentioned in class that certain Pseudomonas species are responsible for the conversion of fixed nitrogen to molecular nitrogen in anaerobic soils, particularly those soaked with water. They do this by employing nitrate (NO3-) as a final electron acceptor. What is a general name for this process whereby an inorganic substance is employed as a final electron acceptor in an anaerobic environment? [PEEK]
2. Name two differences between respiration and fermentation.[PEEK]
3. In aerobic respiration, what is the final electron acceptor[PEEK]
4. Which two of the following are composed of, in part or in whole, of a three carbon core such as that found in glycerol (shown below)? [PEEK]
OH OH OH
| | |
H - C - C - C - H
| | |
H H H
(circle both correct answers below)
1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb's cycle
3. phospholipids
4. tricarboxylic acid
5. inorganic phosphate
6. sterols
5. Start with one Glucose. At the end of glycolysis but prior to acetyl CoA production (and prior to the Kreb's cycle, and prior to electron transfer, and prior to chemiosmosis, i.e., in solving this problem ignore all other aspects of cellular respiration other than the transport of glycolytic products into the mitochondria), if all of the glycolytic products which normally find their way into the mitochondria are now there, what is the up to this moment net yield of ATP? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. more than four.
6. How many carbon dioxides are produced per individual turn of the Kreb's citric acid cycle (i.e., starting with one acetyl-CoA and one oxaloacetate and ending with one oxaloacetate)? (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 0.
2. 1.
3. 2.
4. 3.
5. 4.
6. 5.
7. 6.
8. more than 6.
7. Just considering numbers of carbon atoms (and ignoring ADPs, ATPs, NAD+, NADH, FAD, FADH2, various enzymes, and other structural components of the cell), glycolysis and then the Kreb's cycle progress via (non-carbon dioxide) carbon containing compound intermediates having __________ carbon atoms each (note: ignore isomerizations as well as other changes in compounds which do no result in changes in carbon number). (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, and then 1.
2. 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
3. 6, 7, 6, 4, 3, 6, 4, and then 2.
4. 6 and then 2.
5. 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
6. 6, 4, 2, 6, and then 4.
7. 6, 2, 4, and then 6.
8. The total ATP produced (i.e., gross--ignore priming costs and transport costs), as a consequence of both substrate level phosphrolylation and chemiosmosis, as a consequence of (i) glycolysis, (ii) acetyl-CoA production, (iii) Kreb's cycle, (iv) substrate-level phosphorylation-only, and (v) chemiosmosis-only, all per one starting glucose, is __________ ATPs, repectively. (circle one correct answer) [PEEK]
1. 4, 12, 18, 3, and 24.
2. 8, 4, 22, 5, and 30.
3. 6, 2, 20, 4, and 28.
4. 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
5. 2, 8, 16, 2, and 20.
6. 0, 6, 14, 1, and 16.
9. Name two ways fermentation differs from anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
10. Name three possible byproducts of ATP generation. [PEEK]
11. "__________," is one similarity between fermentation and anaerobic respiration. [PEEK]
1. both occur purely in the cytoplasm.
2. both are a feature of obligate aerobes.
3. both occur only in eucaryotes.
4. both regenerate NAD+.
5. both require oxygen.
6. humans are capable of doing both.
1. Practice question answers
1. i is the answer (structure on left). These are all Kreb's cycle intermediates. The one in the middle is isocitric acid while the one on the left is oxalosuccinic acid. Citric acid is on the far right. Note that, in the course of the Kreb's cycle, citric acid is converted to isocitric acid which is then converted to oxalosuccinic acid, the latter reaction results in NAD+ being reduced to NADH + H+. Thus, the most oxidized (i.e., least reduced) is the compound on the left, oxalosuccinic acid. Regardless, the intermediates to oxalosuccinic acids (middle and far right) both have more hydrogens thus suggesting a greater level of reduction.
2. Same as first reaction (1), C2-CoA + C4 + H2O à C6 + CoA
3. pyruvate and NADH
4. storage fats are made
5. all are ones except in front of CO2 which is a two and in front of NAD+, NADH, and H+ which are all threes.
6. i, oxaloacetate
7. tricarboxylic acid:
H
|
HOOC-C-H
|
HOOC-C-OH
|
HOOC-C-H
|
H
1.
2. iv, per pyruvate there is 1 NADH + H+ from glycolysis + 1 NADH + H+ from acetyl-CoA formation + 3 NADH + H+ from the Kreb's citric acid cycle + 1 FADH2 from the Kreb's citric acid cycle. Given 3 ATP per NADH and 2 ATP through FADH2 following electron transport and chemiosmosis, that's (5 * 3) + 2 ATP = 17 ATP per pyruvate or a 34 ATP per glucose gross yield from chemiosmosis. Of course we lose 2 ATP for the transport of 2 NADHs into the mitochondria, so the net gain is 32 ATP from chemiosmosis. Note that two additional ATPs come from glycolysis and substrate level phosphorylation during the Kreb's cycle bring the total net ATP yield to 36 per glucose in eucoryotes. i, NADH. The easy way to figure this out is to note how many ATPs each species is worth upon access to an electron transport chain in a mitochondria: 3, 0, 2, and 0 for NADH, NAD+, FADH2, and FAD.
3. iii, citric acid
4. anaerobic respiration
5. Respiration makes lots of ATP, uses inorganic final electron acceptors (such as molecular oxygen), and uses an electron transport chain. Fermentation makes only a little ATP, does not use an electron transport chain, and uses organic final electron acceptors. Note that in either case "waste" molecules are given off into the environment (CO2 is the waste molecule in the case of aerobic respiration).
6. Oxygen
7. i and iii, glycolysis (a number of intermediates) and phospholipids (a glycerol derivative forms the central core)
8. i, 0; recall that only two net ATP are produced by glycolysis, but that these are both employed in the transport of NADH into the mitochondria.
9. iii, 2; remember, each turn of the Kreb's cycle converts a six carbon molecule to a four carbon molecule with each carbon lost as a CO(2).
10. v, 6, 3, 2, 6, 5, and then 4.
11. iv, 10, 6, 24, 6, and 34.
12. organic final electron acceptor rather than inorganic, less ATP versus more, production of organic waste versus lack of production of organic waste, lack of use of electron transport system versus use of, ATPs generated by substrate level phosphorylation versus ATPs mostly generated by chemiosmosis, lack of chemiosmosis versus chemiosmosis, etc.
13. H2O, various non-oxygen inorganic electron acceptors including nitrogen gas, NADH, fermentation products including: lactic acid, ethanol, CO2, acetone, formic acid, H+.
14. iv, both regenerate NAD+.
1. References
1. Raven, P.H., Johnson, G.B. (1995). Biology (updated version). Third Edition. Wm. C. Brown publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. pp. 153-178.
Wednesday, July 15, 2009
Quiz I Lab Review
Hypotheses –
1. Identify the by-products of aerobic and anaerobic respiration in yeast.
2. The effects of freezing on aerobic respiration of peas.
3. Rate of oxygen consumption in room thawed peas and peas.
YEAST AND GLUCOSE
How –
Yeast can break down glucose therefore, it was mixed, causing Glycolysis to happen. The end product of Ethanolic Fermentation in Yeast is water and carbon dioxide (CO2)
Culture set up, with tube coming out of it, heated, produced ethanol, yellow precipitate. YELLOW precipitate indicates presence of ethanol.
White precipitate tells us CO2 is being produced.
In the experiment we took 4 test tubes
1. Number 1 to 4
2. Add Iodine to each****KOH **
3. Add NAOH sodium hydroxide to each NAOH **** NAOH sodium hydroxide
4. Add Sample in each
a. Tube 1 - distilled water
b. Tube 2– Water and 95% ethanol
c. Tube 3 – Anaerobic culture
d. Tube 4 – Control (already done)
WAITED 5 Minutes
Then Mixed
1. If ethanol is present it will react with the iodine to form (iodoform)
2. Tube 3 with the anaerobic culture should have turned Yellow Precipitate
Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate***** Yellow Precipitate = Ethanol
Yellow Precipitate ***IODOFORM***** = Ethanol
IODOFORM ***Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate*** IODOFORM
1. Identify the by-products of aerobic and anaerobic respiration in yeast.
2. The effects of freezing on aerobic respiration of peas.
3. Rate of oxygen consumption in room thawed peas and peas.
YEAST AND GLUCOSE
How –
Yeast can break down glucose therefore, it was mixed, causing Glycolysis to happen. The end product of Ethanolic Fermentation in Yeast is water and carbon dioxide (CO2)
Culture set up, with tube coming out of it, heated, produced ethanol, yellow precipitate. YELLOW precipitate indicates presence of ethanol.
White precipitate tells us CO2 is being produced.
In the experiment we took 4 test tubes
1. Number 1 to 4
2. Add Iodine to each****KOH **
3. Add NAOH sodium hydroxide to each NAOH **** NAOH sodium hydroxide
4. Add Sample in each
a. Tube 1 - distilled water
b. Tube 2– Water and 95% ethanol
c. Tube 3 – Anaerobic culture
d. Tube 4 – Control (already done)
WAITED 5 Minutes
Then Mixed
1. If ethanol is present it will react with the iodine to form (iodoform)
2. Tube 3 with the anaerobic culture should have turned Yellow Precipitate
Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate***** Yellow Precipitate = Ethanol
Yellow Precipitate ***IODOFORM***** = Ethanol
IODOFORM ***Yellow Precipitate*** Yellow Precipitate*** IODOFORM
Tuesday, July 14, 2009
Day 2! Today we studied, respiration - anaerobic and aerobic. Also Glycolysis, with and without oxygen, Krebs, ATP, ADP, Mitochondria, NAD+, NADH an
Respiration – Goal = produce ATP, released as electrons (ex. NAD+) to ETC = ATP
Anaerobic - without air (without oxygen) Absence of electron acceptor like as nitrate, sulphate or oxygen. Inorganic molecule (other than oxygen), CO2 is reduced to methane
Aerobic – means with oxygen, Glycolysis is able to make Pyruvate, which product is Acetyl-CoA, then that enters the Krebs Cycle
Fermentation – Organic molecule as final electron acceptor.
NAD+ - an important electron carrier (AMP)
When NAD+ acquires two electrons and a proton (reduction=reduction) into NADH
NADH – carries two electrons for supply to other molecules. Important for metabolism
Carbon & Hydrogen Bond Stripped during Glycolysis and Krebs
Electron Transport Chain ( ETC)
Electron Transport Chain – located in the mito inner membrane (made up or F1, ATPase), produces a proton gradient, pumps protons (H+) across the membrane from the matrix to the inner membrane space. The H+ then moves via diffusion, (Proton Motive Force)-THEN (ATP Synthase) =ATP. All NAHD (FADH2) converted to ATP.
Each NADH converts to 3 ATP
Each FADH2 coverts to 2 ATP
Glycolysis (Pyruvate dependent on oxygen)(converts glucose to Pyruvate)
Addition of energy, two energy phosphates
STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS to Pyruvate Oxidation and Acetyl-Coa
10 step cycle with oxygen
Energy Investment Phase (prep phase, first 5 steps)
Energy Yielding Phase (energy pay off stage, second 5 steps)
***Glucose AIM - ( 6 carbon converted to 3 Pyruvate) ***
-----2 ATP consumed (priming the pump) –
-----Later generates 4 ATP (NET GAIN 2 ATP)
-----2 NADHs
Glucose
Fructose, 6 phosphates
ATP Inhibits / ADP Activates / Citrate Inhibits
1 Fructose, 6 bisphosphate
Pyruvate ( Pie – Vuu – Vate) ( need for Kerbs)
Pyruvate Oxidation
NADH Inhibits
Acetyl-Coa ( a see tel Co_A)************
Enters Krebs (products NADH,Citrate(ETC electron transport chain, ATP) (chemiosmosis)
Krebs Cycle Dr Krebs
Oxidizes the Acetyl-Coa ( from Pyruvate)
2 carbons + 4 carbons = 6 carbons
After Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs Glucose has be oxidized to
6 CO^2
4 ATP
10 NADH *********
2 FADH^2 Both continue to the electron transport chain ******
Anaerobic - without air (without oxygen) Absence of electron acceptor like as nitrate, sulphate or oxygen. Inorganic molecule (other than oxygen), CO2 is reduced to methane
Aerobic – means with oxygen, Glycolysis is able to make Pyruvate, which product is Acetyl-CoA, then that enters the Krebs Cycle
Fermentation – Organic molecule as final electron acceptor.
NAD+ - an important electron carrier (AMP)
When NAD+ acquires two electrons and a proton (reduction=reduction) into NADH
NADH – carries two electrons for supply to other molecules. Important for metabolism
Carbon & Hydrogen Bond Stripped during Glycolysis and Krebs
Electron Transport Chain ( ETC)
Electron Transport Chain – located in the mito inner membrane (made up or F1, ATPase), produces a proton gradient, pumps protons (H+) across the membrane from the matrix to the inner membrane space. The H+ then moves via diffusion, (Proton Motive Force)-THEN (ATP Synthase) =ATP. All NAHD (FADH2) converted to ATP.
Each NADH converts to 3 ATP
Each FADH2 coverts to 2 ATP
Glycolysis (Pyruvate dependent on oxygen)(converts glucose to Pyruvate)
Addition of energy, two energy phosphates
STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS to Pyruvate Oxidation and Acetyl-Coa
10 step cycle with oxygen
Energy Investment Phase (prep phase, first 5 steps)
Energy Yielding Phase (energy pay off stage, second 5 steps)
***Glucose AIM - ( 6 carbon converted to 3 Pyruvate) ***
-----2 ATP consumed (priming the pump) –
-----Later generates 4 ATP (NET GAIN 2 ATP)
-----2 NADHs
Glucose
Fructose, 6 phosphates
ATP Inhibits / ADP Activates / Citrate Inhibits
1 Fructose, 6 bisphosphate
Pyruvate ( Pie – Vuu – Vate) ( need for Kerbs)
Pyruvate Oxidation
NADH Inhibits
Acetyl-Coa ( a see tel Co_A)************
Enters Krebs (products NADH,Citrate(ETC electron transport chain, ATP) (chemiosmosis)
Krebs Cycle Dr Krebs
Oxidizes the Acetyl-Coa ( from Pyruvate)
2 carbons + 4 carbons = 6 carbons
After Glycolysis, Pyruvate Oxidation and Krebs Glucose has be oxidized to
6 CO^2
4 ATP
10 NADH *********
2 FADH^2 Both continue to the electron transport chain ******
Monday, July 13, 2009
Day One - Energy
Oxidation – Loss of Electrons
Reduction – Gain of Electrons
Energy
Two Types
Kinetic Energy – energy of motion
Potential Energy – stored energy
Thermodynamics – branch of chemistry concerned with energy changes
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy in the universes. Energy can not be created not destroyed only changed. Total amount of energy stays constant.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Transformation of Energy
Entropy- disorder of energy,
Redox – Gaining/Losing energy
Redox Reactions – coupled reactions
Exergonic – negative change in energy ( disable chemical bons)
Endergonic- positive change in energy
ATP – Edenosine Triphosphate
Ribose
Adenine
Three Phosphates
ATP is a couple reaction – ATP/ADP
Ribonuclease –
ribozymes – RNA enzyme - hydrolysis of one of their own phosphodiester bonds
Active Site –
Allosteric Site- expose another active site / change shape of an enzyme
PCR – polymerase chain reaction
Cofactors – non protein component of the enzyme
Multienzyme
product of one enzyme can be directly delivered to the next enzyme.
The possibility of one side reactions
Reduction – Gain of Electrons
Energy
Two Types
Kinetic Energy – energy of motion
Potential Energy – stored energy
Thermodynamics – branch of chemistry concerned with energy changes
First Law of Thermodynamics
Energy in the universes. Energy can not be created not destroyed only changed. Total amount of energy stays constant.
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Transformation of Energy
Entropy- disorder of energy,
Redox – Gaining/Losing energy
Redox Reactions – coupled reactions
Exergonic – negative change in energy ( disable chemical bons)
Endergonic- positive change in energy
ATP – Edenosine Triphosphate
Ribose
Adenine
Three Phosphates
ATP is a couple reaction – ATP/ADP
Ribonuclease –
ribozymes – RNA enzyme - hydrolysis of one of their own phosphodiester bonds
Active Site –
Allosteric Site- expose another active site / change shape of an enzyme
PCR – polymerase chain reaction
Cofactors – non protein component of the enzyme
Multienzyme
product of one enzyme can be directly delivered to the next enzyme.
The possibility of one side reactions
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